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Rural livelihood strategies that engage in criminalised activities and hidden economies are an important, yet understudied, aspect of achieving economic diversification.  This paper discusses findings from a project that examined the role and importance of cannabis cultivation, as a criminalised cash crop, in Lesotho.  The research employed a multi-strategy approach that combined qualitative and quantitative methodologies.  Cannabis income was found to play a very important role in economic and livelihood diversification in the study area.  The paper concludes that cannabis production, as an extra-legal livelihood strategy, should be viewed by policy makers using a livelihoods focus, rather than a criminal one, if rural smallholders are not to be further marginalised by drug control policies. Key words: cannabis; Lesotho; political ecology; extra-legal livelihood

Using a political ecology framework to examine extra-legal livelihood strategies: a Lesotho-based case study of cultivation of and trade in cannabis