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Medieval mining in Western and Central Europe started in the 10th century and experienced a period of significant rise in the 13th century as a result of developments in agriculture, population increase, the rebirth of towns, and expanding markets1. The constant demand for silver and other metals forced people to look for and exploit new deposits. This phenomenon was especially prevalent in the Central European region, including Upper Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia, and present-day Slovakia2. After the technical and financial crisis during the 14th and the first half of the 15th century3, mining flourished in the 16th century on a much bigger scale than before4. Mining brought an enormous interference in the natural environment. Miners and smelters cut the wood, destroyed the landscape, contaminated soils, water, and air. This influence can be traced in historical, archaeological, and environmental sources (such as geochemical and paleobotanical records). Despite the dynamism of the changes that took place in many medieval mining regions, it is possible to trace the relations between the natural and built environment and the local population. Thanks to the advances in environmental analysis triggered by the issues related to the modern industry, we can estimate the impact of past mining and metalworking practices on the environment and human health. This process can be seen in a longue durée perspective, from the earliest phases of the industrial era until present times. Mining centres established during the two aforementioned phases of mining development functioned for a long time. In some cases, the lasting effects of medieval and early modern mining works are still visible, showing the far-reaching roots of some of the modern landscapes. This paper addresses the question of how mining and smelting operations changed the natural environment and how society reacted to these changes. The key issues that I will focus

The ecology of mining. Human–environmental relations in the Medieval and Early Modern mining in Central Europe