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able after a few years, so individual explosive eruptions only contribute short-term variability to the spectrum of Holocene climate. However, if eruptions were more frequent in the past, or if they happened to occur in clusters, it is possible that the cumulative effect of eruptions could have persisted for longer, resulting in decadalto multi-decadal scale impacts. Such effects would be enhanced if the initial cooling led to feedbacks within the climate system, such as more persistent snow and sea-ice cover, which would raise the surface albedo and possibly alter the atmospheric circulation. Indeed, the non-seasalt sulfate record from the GISP2 ice core does suggest that there were periods of more frequent explosive eruptions in the past, such as in the period 9500-11500 calendar years BP (Fig. 2) (Zielinski et al., 1994) Furthermore, in the early Holocene there were many large volcanic signals, greater in magnitude than those recorded after the eruption of Tambora (1815), the largest eruption in recent centuries. Of course, a larger sulfate signal might simply mean that the eruption event was closer to the deposition site, so we do not have a definitive long-term record of the magnitude of overall volcanic forcing, or more specifically, of atmospheric optical depth and its distribution latitudinally (cf. Roberston et al., 2001). Energy balance and GCM studies that have parameterized the effects of explosive volcanism and solar forcing over recent centuries suggest that these two factors can explain most of the variability of temperatures over the last millennium (e.g. Crowley, 2000). It therefore seems likely that they have also played a significant role in overall Holocene forcing on inter-annual to century timescales.

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