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Previous research in macro comparative environmental sociology analyzes both environmental and human well-being outcomes of urbanization. The carbon intensity of well-being (CIWB) concept simultaneously measures environmental and human well-being. Here I ask how various types of urbanization, an underexplored concept in the CIWB research, contributes differently to the CIWB of nations. Using longitudinal two-way fixed effects Prais-Winsten regression models for the years 1990–2011 for 78 countries, I find that level of development and urbanization are associated with higher CIWB, as are the percentage of urban populations with access to improved water and sanitation; conversely, urban slum prevalence is associated with lower CIWB. Comparing more versus less developed countries, I find the results are especially robust for lower-income countries. I also find that overall population access to water and sanitation is associated with lower CIWB. The findings suggest directions for sustainable development that take into account different forms of urbanization and both rural and urban population well-being.

Urbanization, Slums, and the Carbon Intensity of Well-being: Implications for Sustainable Development