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During the twentieth century, China witnessed a dramatic episode of societal change when a series of revolutions toppled the social order that sustained the imperial rule for more than a thousand years. One of the most significant changes was the cessation of keju – the royal examination system that provided the only channel for upward social mobility – which permanently changed the nature of Chinese education. Education was no longer a bridge to enter officialdom, but a means to enhance one’s productivity and life satisfaction. The spread of education, however, was slow until the communist revolution of 1949. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) began massive campaigns to elevate the Chinese population’s level of education. As a result, the number of illiterate or semi-illiterate people declined from 70 per cent among people born in the 1930s to about 10 per cent among those born around 1980.1 The period of the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) saw the fastest growth in elementary and high school education, from which young

History returns: Intergenerational mobility of education in China in 1930–2010