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Some civilian business practices, such as the utilization of radio frequency identification (RFID) tags and just-in-time (JIT) inventory, were used for the first time by the United States Army in a major conflict during Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). RFID tags were attached to containers and pallets in every sustainment shipment entering and exiting the area of operation. Vendors applied tags prior to initial shipment, or tags were added to pallet, bins, or containers at the aerial ports or at distribution centers. From January to June 2003, over 25,000 containers were tagged (Stewart, 2003). Although RFID tagging and some other Automated Identification Technology applications were somewhat successful during OIF, the logistics network still suffered some significant problems, to include asset visibility and ineffective theater distribution. In October 2003, the Department of Defense (DoD) established a policy for the use of RFID tags within the DoD. The policy requires the DoD to develop business rules based on the results of initial RFID projects, and requires suppliers to place passive RFID tags on the lowest part, case, or pallet possible by January 2005 (Wynne, 2003). An "RFID-enabled DoD supply chain will provide a key enabler to the asset visibility support needed by our warfighter" (Wynne, 2004). To prepare for the implementation, the DoD is partnering with industry and leveraging commercial sector initiatives (Estevez, 2003). Similar to the DoD's initiative, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., announced in June 2003 it will require its top 100 suppliers to attach RFID tags on all shipping crates and pallets destined for Wal-Mart by January 2005 (Brewin and Vijayan, 2003). Wal-Mart is the world's largest retailer, and has extensive influence over industry practices. The DoD is even larger, and has a supply chain unmatched in diversity by any commercial industry (Gilligan, 2004). Although both are implementing RFID technologies, it is important to note that retailers and the DoD may have different objectives for RFID. William Phillips, head of IBM's defense industry consulting business notes that "DoD requirements are similar to industry's at a high level, but as you drill down, DoD's focus is on readiness ... its supply chain is more widely distributed and fluid" (Jackson, 2004). The initial purpose of this research was to determine if the implementation of RFID technologies to track equipment and supplies could be effectively used in a wartime environment by the Army's logistics network in order to improve asset visibility. As the research progressed, similarities and differences between how industry and the Army are implementing and using RFID technologies in their supply chains and logistics networks became apparent, and this article focuses on those similarities and differences. It is hoped that in areas where the Army has shown advanced practice, this could be helpful to industry; and in areas where industry has solutions, the Army could benefit. The purpose of this study was to provide a preliminary characterization of the similarities and the differences between organizations in these two distinctly different environments, who share common problems and issues. It is believed that the results of this study highlight interesting areas for further investigation. METHODOLOGY This research used a grounded theory methodology to address the initial investigative and research questions, and employed content analysis to assist in the identification of similarities and differences between civilian industry and the Army. How the Army employed RFID technologies in its logistics network during the combat phase of OIF, and the associated lessons learned, were researched as part of the literature review. Academic literature available on the subject was somewhat limited, due to the newness of the topic, and the data for the literature review were extracted from DoD and Army manuals and regulations, OIF articles and lessons learned, and DoD briefings. …

journal of transportation management

A comparison of implementation issues and strategies for radio frequency identification technologies between the U.S. military and private sector organizations