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Infrared and chlorophyll fluorescence imaging methods are useful techniques to evaluate environmental effects on plant performance. With the advent of digital imaging and advances in sensor technology, infrared (IR) thermography has become more accurate and less expensive. Modern IR cameras can resolve 0.5 8C temperature differences and research- grade instruments can resolve 0.05 8C. This precision has allowed the physical processes of freezing and transpiration to be more accurately studied and modeled. Chlorophyll fluorescence imaging, although still an expensive technology, has also become sufficiently rugged to be useful in the field. The measurement of quantum efficiency, Fv/Fm, provides clear data on the effect of various environmental and biotic effects on the performance of photosynthesis in plants through the effect on photosystem II. Modern digital cameras with low signal-to-noise ratios can also image chlorophyll fluorescence using time lapse exposure. Peltier-cooled charge coupled device (CCD) cameras can measure the autoluminescence in stressed plants that is generated by reactive oxygen species. Advances in technology have reduced the cost and precision of imaging equipment to a point that they are more applicable tools to plant scientists. ple psychrometry is the ability to image objects over time while they move and with no physical contact and the ability to moni- tor large contiguous areas rather than point sources. Aside from cost, the two primary limitations to the value of thermography are 1) the accurate measurement of the target object emissivity; and 2) its ability to mea- sure only one subject at a time. The object's emissivity is a required value for accurate calculation of surface temperature. Fortu- nately, plants in general have equivalent emissivity (0.95 to 0.98) and the measure- ment of emissivity is a simple matter. Ther- mography has led to a greater understanding of freezing (Wisniewski et al., 2008, 2009),

Infrared and Chlorophyll Fluorescence Imaging Methods for Stress Evaluation