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Numerous research studies have examined the relationship between organizational stress and organizational effectiveness, especially in relation to athlete performance. The purpose of this case study was to investigate the process by which National Performance Directors (NPDs) of a single U.S. Olympic sport program attempted to prevent and manage the organizational stress of their athletes in preparation for and participation in international competition in an Olympic year. Results indicated the NPDs were aware of the causes of stress identified in the literature. Despite a lack of formalized sport psychology training, the NPDs assumed responsibility for managing these stressors, relying on past personal experience as elite athletes to guide them. Critical to prevention and management of stress were facilitating environments conducive to maximizing athlete performance, creating ample support structures, communicating among constituent groups, and managing relationships through the development of social cohesion. Faure & Appleby 140 Introduction Organizational performance is one of the most important constructs in sports management. Fletcher and Hanton (2003) stressed, “sport organizations and personnel working with elite performers need to be aware of and sensitive to the complex social and organizational environment they are constantly shaping” (p. 193). One key element that is relevant to performance in sport is stress. Stress, and how organizations manage and control stress for athletes, can have considerable effects on the athletes’ behavior both in training and competition. In 1982, Shirom defined the term organizational stress as “work-related social psychological stress” (p. 21). It was not until more than a decade later that researchers began to study organizational stress in sport environments. Mirroring Shirom’s definition of organizational stress, Woodman and Hardy (2001) clarified that organizational stress encompasses only the stress that stems directly from an athlete’s relationship with the sport organization. When not managed appropriately, organizational stress can have a detrimental impact on performance (Woodman & Hardy, 2001). Ioana et al. (2012) warned that stress could lead to an athlete’s inability to concentrate and actively participate in the activity at hand. Adapting to the specific conditions of the competitive environment can also be affected by the presence of stress. Therefore, sport organizations that are serious about supporting athletes at the elite level should pay careful attention to the environment within which their athletes are operating and how their organizational processes minimize negative stress for competitors (Fletcher & Hanton, 2003). This is especially important when it comes to supporting high performance program, or pipeline athletes, a subset of elite athletes who some National Governing Bodies (NGB’s) feel have the most realistic chance of making an Olympic team. Often, the effectiveness of a sport organization is defined by its ability to manage organizational stress. Organizational effectiveness refers to an organization’s ability to successfully manage its internal and external affairs and achieve positive outcomes (Richard, Devinney, Yip & Johnson, 2009). In the sport Management of Organizational Stress 141 setting, organizational effectiveness can pertain to the management of team travel, marketing and fundraising efforts, public relations requests, and maximizing athlete performance through coaching, nutrition, injury management, and psychological interventions. Organizational effectiveness can also include aspects of support pertaining to athlete performance such as “...organizational culture, resources and support, communication and atmosphere, long-term planning, internal procedures, activity level, efficiency of throughput process, realization of aims, interest in athletes, and caliber of board and external liaisons” (Hanton, 2011, p. S180). It is believed that effective organizations may have a competitive advantage because athlete distractions are minimized. Research has suggested that organizational stressors can negatively impact athletes’ performance specifically when organizations do not provide opportunities to enhance feelings of perceived control (Hanton, Wagstaff, & Fletcher, 2007). Minimizing stress in elite athletes, especially those select few who are considered as pipeline athletes, has become a focal point for National Performance Directors (NPDs) in sport. Fletcher and Arnold (2011) found that NPDs invest a considerable amount of time in identifying and articulating a vision and argued that it is important for elite sport leaders to not only establish and express a team’s ultimate aspiration, but also to disseminate its vision, role model its message, and inspire individuals to invest in it. Similarly, Gould and Maynard’s (2009) literature review of research on Olympic athletes suggests that organizational effectiveness and support can have a large influence on the performance of athletes. The findings of this study suggest that successful Olympic athletes generally reported their sport organizations positively impacted their performance through the following: (a) providing appropriate support personnel (i.e., coaching staffs and sport psychologists), (b) facilitating a supportive team atmosphere, (c) helping athletes create realistic performance objectives, and (d) minimizing distractions from sources within the host city. While there have been several studies that have investigated the sources of organizational stress on elite athletes at international competition (Fletcher & Hanton, 2003; Woodman & Hardy, 2001), Faure & Appleby 142 Fletcher and Wagstaff (2009) warned that there is not sufficient research regarding performance management in elite sport. They recommended researchers explore how sport leaders and managers create, optimize, and maintain a high performance environment. Therefore, the purpose of this case study was to investigate the process by which NPDs of a single U.S. Olympic sport program attempted to prevent and manage the organizational stress of their high performance, or pipeline, athletes in preparation for and participation in international competition during an Olympic year. While there have been several studies that have investigated the source of stress on elite pipeline-level athletes, especially at the Olympic Games (Woodman & Hardy, 2001; Fletcher & Hanton, 2003), this study is significant because it is the first to examine the way that NPDs perceived stress and attempted to prevent and manage it within a single Olympic sport program. The exploration of this topic will be valuable for NPDs and other sport managers who deal with competition logistics. While limited to one sport, we feel the results of this study can assist other sport leaders as they attempt to minimize athlete stressors and maximize performances. Methods This qualitative study followed an interpretive case study approach. Case studies are defined as an “intensive, holistic” approach to research that provides and “in-depth understanding of a single unit or bounded system” (Baumgartner & Hensley, 2006, p. 210). According to Yin (2003), a case study approach is an appropriate framework to use when investigating an individual organization. Further, case studies analyze people, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, and/or other systems that are studied holistically by one or more methods while contextually analyzing a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships (Marshall & Rossman, 2006; Thomas, 2011). Researchers have used the case study research method for many years across a variety of disciplines. Social scientists, in particular, have made wide use of qualitative research methodology to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of ideas (Yin, 2003). Interpretive paradigms suggest that Management of Organizational Stress 143 the social world is subjective and complex and that “...people define their own realities” (Silk, Andrews, & Mason, 2005, p. 7). Therefore the interpretive case study approach that we utilized in this study allowed us to investigate the participants’ subjective meaning in relation to their experiences of organizational effectiveness and stress. Participants, Instrumentation and Procedures We recruited and obtained interviews from two National Performance Directors (NPDs) and a Senior-Level Administrator (SLA) from a single NGB of sport affiliated with and supported by the United States Olympic Committee (USOC). NPD1 had worked with the NGB for six years previous, while NPD2 was in his first year, although he had also served in a similar capacity with another country’s NGB for ten years prior to being recruited to come assist the United States’ team. Additionally, both NPDs had prior histories of competing in the sport at an elite level. The SLA who participated in this study had been with the organization for 14 years prior to the start of this study, overseeing the sport’s administration at both the grassroots and elite levels. To gain an understanding of the methods used to prevent and manage organizational stress of their pipeline athletes, we used an in-depth, semi-structured interview approach along with participant observation. Prior to data collection, an interview guide was constructed based off of previous research related to the impact of organizational stress on athletes. Areas of specific concern related to (a) organizational issues, (b) environmental issues, (c) personal issues, (d) leadership issues, and (e) team issues (Fletcher & Hanton, 2003; Woodman & Hardy, 2001). The semi-structured interview protocol allowed us to explore specific areas of interest pertaining to the purpose of the study while also allowing for a flexible conversational style interview to occur (Patton, 1990). Interviews were conducted in person

the journal of sport

The Logistical Management of the Organizational Stress of Elite “Pipeline” Athletes: Interventions of National Performance Directions in an Olympic Year