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Primates are particularly susceptible to parasitic infections because they live in social groups that facilitate their transmission (Stoner, 1996). The costs and benefits of living in smaller and larger social groups have been examined in a number of primate field studies (Struhsaker, 1969; Eisenberg et al., 1972; Clutton-Brock and Harvey, 1977; Van Schaik, 1989; Janson, 1992; Sterck et al., 1997; Chapman and Chapman, 2000; Kappeler and van Schaik, 2002). Several factors influence social group living: 1) the availability, abundance, and distribution of food resources — limiting the number of animals that an area can support or influencing foraging efficiency in groups of different sizes (Wrangham, 1980; Chapman, 1990); 2) historical and social traits, including changes in group size or population size (Stevenson et al., 1998); 3) life history traits such as birth rates, sex ratios, mortality, and dispersal patterns (Altmann, 1980; Dunbar, 1988; Crockett, 1996); 4) predation pressure (Stanford, 2002); 5) cooperation and affiliation among individuals (Sussman and Garber, 2004); and 6) traits related to social organization that are phylogenetically conservative and do not change in different environments (DiFiore and Rendall, 1994). There are few studies that consider parasite transmission as a factor in limiting group size or affecting group structure in social primates (Freeland, 1976; Janson, 2000).

The parasite behavior hypothesis and the use of sleeping sites by black howler monkeys (<i>Alouatta caraya</i>) in a discontinuous forest