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On 6 October 1877, several Japanese Christian students living in San Francisco gathered and organized the Fukuinkai (Gospel Society) for Bible study and to encourage mutual concern and support among members who shared similar difficulties and struggles. In addition to being the first organization established by Japanese in the United States, it was regarded as a "Japanese student's cradle society," which provided a supportive environment that enabled migrant students to continue their studies and cope with the challenges of living in American society. A review of the literature indicates that the Fukuinkai has largely been studied from the standpoint of church history or in relation to missionary programs and been seen primarily as an agent of assimilation into American culture. This case study reveals a more complicated picture and indicates that the established interpretation needs to be re-examined. An analysis of the educational programs of the Fukuinkai shows that it cultivated hybrid activities among its members. It provided the context for Japanese students to reconsider and appreciate their own cultural values and heritage, but also nurtured a transnational consciousness through its social, political, and cultural ties with Japan. At the same time, it helped to develop a consciousness of rights among members in their relationship to and involvement with the host society. KEYWORDS: Japanese Christian immigrants - Fukuinkai - transnationalism - racial discrimination (ProQuest-CSA LLC: ... denotes non-USASCII text omitted.) THE STUDY of Christianity in Japan has often focused on the history of various mission churches and institutions or biographical studies of significant missionaries and well-known Japanese Christian leaders. The Japanese encounter with Christianity has not been limited to these domestic experiences often mediated by foreign missionaries. An important but often overlooked dimension of Japanese Christianity-particularly in its Protestant forms-is related to the experience of immigrants and students outside of Japan. Overseas migration is one way in which Christian activities and consciousness expand beyond a single nation-state or region. A "transnational" approach is needed in order to explain some early developments among Japanese Christian immigrants overseas.1 For our purposes here, I define "transnational" Christian activities and consciousness as the political loyalty and cultural identity of de-territorialized Christians looking to a single national territory. These transnational religious activities and consciousness serve to maintain and intensify social, political, and cultural ties with the home country. A study of the Fukuinkai ... (Gospel Society), an important organization among early Japanese immigrants in the United States, will illuminate the nature of transnational Christian consciousness and its role in shaping the development of Protestant Christianity in both countries during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. On 6 October 1877, several Japanese Christian students living in San Francisco gathered to form the Fukuinkai for Bible study and to encourage mutual support for life in America. The Fukuinkai was the first organization formed by Japanese living in America and can be considered "a cradle society for Japanese students." It responded to the needs of migrant working students and provided a supportive environment that enabled them to continue their studies in American society. The organization's activities and services included night classes, dormitories, meals, assistance in finding employment, and support for studying abroad. These programs were not just beneficial to Fukuinkai members. The various activities also nurtured a vision and concern for the welfare of others outside of the organization. While the educational and missionary work by American Protestant churches among Japanese students during this time is often noted, it needs to be recognized that the Fukuinkai also played a major role in the initial formation of the Japanese community. …

Japanese Immigrants and their Christian Communities in North America: A Case Study of the Fukuinkai, 1877–1896