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During the middle and late Heian period (eleventh and twelfth centuries), monastic discipline in Japanese Buddhism declined drastically. Many monks began to carry weapons and engage in armed warfare, frequently against other monks of the same school. A number of sociological, political, and economic explanations have been offered for these events: for example, the influx of nobles into monasteries and their domination of top positions in the monastic world, the need to defend the monasteries' manors (shben XE ), and the breakdown of the RitsuryG system which had governed ordinations. Several scholars have suggested that changes in the interpretation of the precepts may also have played an important role in making it easier for monks to ignore monastic discipline. Both Takagi, a scholar of Nichiren El g, and Taga, the author of a biography of Eisai gptj , the monk traditionally considered the founder of Rinzai Zen, have argued that the ninth century Tendai scholar Annen's Z A4 (9th century) text on the precepts and ordinations, the Futsii jubosatsukai kbshaku B & % @ 3% K R [Extensive explanation of the universal bodhisattva precepts ordination], contributed substantially to the decline in monastic discipline in the Tendai School.' The author wishes to express his appreciation to the Japan Foundation for the support he received in 1982-83 which enabled him to do the basic research for this paper. The author has discussed the doctrinal aspects of Annen's view of the precepts in "A study of Annen's Futrii jubosatrukai kfishaku," in the forthcoming Buddhist Apocrypha in East Asia and Tibet, Robert Buswell, ed. Taga (1965, pp. 236-37) remarks that Annen's treatment of the precepts are quoted in almost all subsequent Tendai treatments of the Perfect-sudden precepts and argues that Annen's views could easily be interpreted to provide a doctrinal basis for breaking the precepts. Takagi (1982, p. 55) maintains a similar position. Tonegawa (1985, p. 75-79) has described the influence of Annen's position on the precepts in several late Heian Tendai works.

Annen, Tankei, Henjō, and monastic discipline in the Tendai School: The background of the Futsū jubosatsukai kōshaku