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dates from the late 1960s, when copperselective solvent extraction (SX) reagents were commercially introduced by BASF (General Mills at the time) in response to the need for a more economical and cost-efficient process to recover copper from oxide leach solutions other than cementation on scrap iron. With the progressive introduction of more stable and selective reagent/diluent systems, copper SX technology has matured to become a costeffective, large-scale technology that is used throughout the world. It is now used to recover copper from pregnant leach solutions (PLS) containing 2–20 g/L copper produced by either heap leaching of oxide ores or atmospheric tank leaching of secondary sulphide ores. Currently, about 20% of the world’s copper production uses the combination of SX and electrowinning (EW). Heap leaching and atmospheric tank leaching technologies are now accepted as state-of-the-art for processing oxides and secondary sulphides. Pressure oxidation (POX) autoclave technology, operating at temperatures of 140– 225°C, offers acceptable dissolution kinetics and recoveries for primary copper sulphide concentrates, but suffers from relatively high CAPEX and OPEX. At the higher operating temperatures, total oxidation of sulphide to sulphuric acid consumes oxygen in excess of that required for copper dissolution. In the absence of an accompanying oxide heap leach process, the relatively dilute acid produced by POX requires neutralization and disposal. Thus, unique project circumstances are necessary to produce acceptable economics. The CESL process, owned by TECK, is a chloride-catalysed autoclave process that operates at 140°C with partial sulphur oxidation. The Salobo demonstration plant in Brazil, owned by Vale, was built and operated to demonstrate the CESL technology for copper recovery. The CESL process is currently under consideration for treating arsenic-rich copper concentrates. A partial list of processes that have been considered for leaching primary sulphide copper concentrates during the last 25 years is given below, along with the current owners: Activox® process—Norilsk Nickel, formerly LionOre Mining International Ltd AlbionTM process—XT of Glencore, formerly Xstrata Technologies The FLSmidth® Rapid Oxidative Leach (ROL) process: a mechano-chemical approach and industrial applications for rapid metal sulphide dissolution