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MARCHING ON THE U.S. CAPITOL: 1945 Protesting World War II (WWII) veterans marched on the U.S. Capitol in Washington, DC, in mid-1945 after the war ended, many defiantly holding their prosthetic legs and arms in the air and shaking them as if wielding clubs and intimidating their enemies--members of the U.S. Congress. Their protests came from the Capitol's gallery, where the veterans gathered to voice their anger about their inferior artificial arms and legs, provided by the lowest-bidding contractor because of prevailing Government regulations. This was the way WWII veteran amputees shouted their message loud and clear: Congress, we have a big problem--one that affects our lives every day--substandard prostheses for us, returning veterans, as compared with higher-quality devices prescribed for civilian amputees. This march of defiance and anger over how they were inadequately treated immediately drew the attention of journalists who reported the plight of the amputees in the Sunday newspapers and supplements. The headline stories around the nation informed Americans of the veterans' plight for the first time [1]. No Government agency or process was in place after WWII to fit and provide quality artificial limbs to wounded veterans. In the end, this new awareness by Congress and American taxpayers of veterans' real and urgent problems after returning from battle positively influenced the passage of important legislation for post-WWII veterans. On November 1, 1945, in response to both the angry amputee veterans and Congress, the Veterans Administration established the Prosthetic Appliance Service [2], which would evolve into the Veterans Administration's Prosthetics and Sensory Aids Service (PSAS) in 1948 [3]. FEBRUARY 1945 IN YALTA AND CHICAGO Earlier, in February 1945, just days before Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at the Yalta Summit, an important meeting took place on the Chicago campus of Northwestern University. Among the attendees was U.S. Army Surgeon General Norman Kirk, an orthopedic surgeon. As a result of this meeting, Dr. Kirk asked the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to initiate and plan a research and development (R&D) program with the mandate to improve prostheses by applying technology from other specialized fields. This meeting was significant in the history of prosthetics because it marked the start of Federal funding for rehabilitation research. In addition, the Chicago meeting established the fields of science, medicine, and engineering as integral specialty disciplines required to solve the complex problems of restoring mobility to veteran amputees. This point in history is when prosthetic fabrication, traditionally considered a craft, began its future trajectory into the scientific method. The National Research Council (NRC), established in 1916 during World War I (WWI), is known as one of the four NASs. The NRC again convened after WWII in response to the large numbers of war-injured. The NRC then formed the Committee on Prosthetics R&D, which was organized to care for and treat the 27,000 U.S. soldiers who lost arms or legs during the battles of WWII. During his WWI service, Dr. Kirk established clinical policies in response to the NRC initiative. The goal was to provide the best possible care to amputees. After WWI, Kirk also helped establish a network of amputee centers around the nation that provided the specialized care that veteran amputees needed. Then in the post-WWII years, he drew on this valuable experience for the unprecedented expansion of hospitals and other care centers. "The U.S. Army built seven amputation centers under Kirk's leadership, each with the capability to provide up-to-date surgical, medical, prosthetic, and rehabilitative care" [4]. GENERAL OMAR BRADLEY ESTABLISHES PROSTHETICS AND SENSORY AIDS SERVICE: 1948 Six months after the Yalta Summit, in August 1945, President Harry S. …

Mobility redux: Post-World War II prosthetics and functional aids for veterans, 1945 to 2010