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We investigated how large carnivores, herbivores, and plants may be linked to the maintenance of native species biodiversity through trophic\udcascades. The extirpation of wolves (Canis lupus) from Yellowstone National Park in the mid-1920s and their reintroduction in 1995 provided the\udopportunity to examine the cascading effects of carnivore–herbivore interactions on woody browse species, as well as ecological responses involving\udriparian functions, beaver (Castor canadensis) populations, and general food webs. Our results indicate that predation risk may have profound\udeffects on the structure of ecosystems and is an important constituent of native biodiversity. Our conclusions are based on theory involving trophic\udcascades, predation risk, and optimal foraging; on the research literature; and on our own recent studies in Yellowstone National Park. Additional\udresearch is needed to understand how the lethal effects of predation interact with its nonlethal effects to structure ecosystems

Wolves and the Ecology of Fear: Can Predation Risk Structure Ecosystems?