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© 2009 Sociedade Brasileira de Zoologia | www.sbzoologia.org.br | All rights reserved. Primates and carnivores belong to phylogenetically distant mammal orders (MURPHY et al. 2001). Overall, carnivores have developed some very particular and conservative characteristics during the process of evolution, whereas primates have held to a more plesiomorphic bauplan that emphasizes adaptability over adaptation (SIMPSON 1980). Such differences in the history of each group have resulted in remarkable anatomical, ecological, and behavioral differences. The most commonly studied interactions between primates and carnivores are between predator and prey (e.g., TREVES 1999, ZUBERBÜHLER & JENNY 2002). While some interactions are of a competitive nature (e.g., ROSE et al. 2003, TREVES & PALMQVIST 2007), mutual interactions are rare (e.g., SCHLEIDT & SHALTER 2003, HAUGAASEN & PERES 2008). In hunting interactions, primates are usually the prey, though in some cases both humans (e.g., JORGENSON & REDFORD 1993) and non-human primates (e.g., ROSE et al. 2003) predate upon carnivores. Hunting by and competition from carnivores have significantly contributed to molding some characteristics of primate biology, including our hominid ancestors (TREVES 1999, TREVES & PALMQVIST 2007). Currently, the conflict between modern humans and carnivores that attack domestic animals results in strong pressure on predator populations (see TREVES & KARANTH 2003, SHIVIK 2006). Despite the conflict of interests inherent to their interactions, and also because of the differences in their evolutionary biology, both groups present several similarities from a scientific point of view. Previous studies have compared primates and carnivores, especially with regards to some aspects of their socioecology (e.g., WRANGHAM et al. 1993, KAYS & GITTLEMAN 2001, SMITH et al. 2008). Some investigators have treated infanticidal behavior (e.g., PARMIGIANI & VOM SAAL 1994), hunting behavior (e.g., BOESCH & BOESCH 1989), and even the convergent morphology between the two groups (e.g., PLAVCAN & RUFF 2008). In a high proportion of such investigations, especially on behavior, studies with primates are used as a model and basis for comparison. The conceptual and theoretical background to understand this line of research in the carnivores stems from such work. However, irrespective of the taxonomic group, studies of behavior and especially socioecology strongly depend upon direct observation of the animals in the wild. In this case, common objectives require methods in common. For primates, the direct-observation study method, which has been used for a broad range of organisms since the natural world began to be scientifically studied, is widespread. For carnivores, direct observation has been more often employed in the Palaeotropic and Nearctic regions, and studies using direct observation in the Neotropical region are very rare, in spite of the existing possibilities. Indeed, it is exactly in this region that the behavior, socioecology, and certain other aspects of the biology of carnivores are poorly understood. The aim of the present study is therefore to address this gap in the Neotropics. The advantage of primates and the problem of carnivores in the Neotropics It has been possible to study the ecology and behavior of primates by following and observing them directly in several locations in South and Central America, because they are conspicuous, and also because of their daily habits and the relative ease with which they become habituated to the observer (the same is true for the Old World primates). Consequently, many scientific questions about this order could be answered. The Neotropical primates constitute a valuable heritage of biodiversity, especially in conservation and biomedical investigations (COIMBRA-FILHO 2004). They are good objects of study to understand forest environments, and are essential components of conservation strategies (RYLANDS et al. 1997, SECHREST et al. 2002). Many Neotropical primates were the main elements in many successful and internationally recognized conservation programs. In Brazil, the history of conservation is thoroughly intertwined with the history of primatology (COIMBRAFILHO 2004, MITTERMEIER et al. 2005). The predominant forest physiognomy in the Neotropical Region and the nocturnal and cathemeral habits of many animals, including many carnivores, pose difficulties to animal direct observation in the wild for long periods of time. Compared with the primates, the Neotropical carnivores are neither well studied nor understood (see CRAWSHAW 2006, OLIVEIRA 2006). Despite the possibilities for data collection through direct observation, some of their habits (feeding, use of space, and activity patterns) and population numbers have been mostly investigated using indirect methods, such as feces analysis, footprint identification, radio telemetry, and photographic trigger systems (camera traps). The lack of behavioral and socio-ecological studies, which are only possible through direct observation, creates an obstacle to a full understanding of the biology of these animals. This gap creates problems when trying to devise conservation actions in situ or ex situ, especially for sensitive animals at the top of the food chain (for the importance of behavioral studies in conservation biology, see KNIGHT 2001, ANGELONI et al. 2008). Much basic but essential information about the great majority of Neotropical carnivores still needs to be obtained, OPINION

zoologia

The direct observational method and possibilities for Neotropical Carnivores: an invitation for the rescue of a classical method spread over the Primatology