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This paper is a qualitative analysis of news reports, broadcast media, tweets, posts, memes, books, biographies and textbooks which uncovers how technology was used to filter the words and ideas of millions of American voters, create or exploit ideological divisions, customize and deliver propaganda via “fake news” to dramatically sway the outcome of the 2016 US Presidential Election. Russian interests were able to exploit social media networks, to deliver customized messaging designed to leverage communication theory common to the social sciences to demonize a candidate and possibly install the highest ranking foreign asset in the history of The United States of America. All of this was accomplished while US security services were aware that the attack was underway. Understanding what happened is essential for the long-term viability of democracy in the information age. Thesis When viewed through the lens of communication theory, the results of the 2016 U.S. Presidential election can be understood. A war of words was quietly waged inside US homes using Internet-connected devices to deliver propaganda, public relations messaging, and leverage communication theory to manipulate the voting public and influence election results. This research paper identifies and examines the applied social science theories as well as the failure of leadership to mitigate these attacks on the democratic process as it occurred. RQ1: Can publics be identified as susceptible to influence in opposition to their own self-interests? RQ2: How are publics targeted? RQ3: How can the effects of mass misinformation be mitigated to protect the democratic process? War of Words: Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the Outcome of the 2016 US Presidential Election Page 3 Section I: Interdisciplinary Social Science Theory In the run-up to the 2016 United States Presidential Election, American broadcast and print media were enthralled by the actions of Donald Trump. His ongoing ​ad hominem​ attacks during the Republican primaries and caucuses garnered a range of responses from outright dismissal to sputtering outrage. His treatment of and statements about fellow Republican candidates brought the political discourse to lows unprecedented in modern times. Most notable to a student of Communication Studies was the lack of thorough analysis by the press and pundits. Trump’s insults, nicknames, and growing popularity seemed to be treated as newsworthy for their shock value. News cycles spun each day on Trump’s latest tweet, insult, comment, or made-up event. With few exceptions, media outlets seemed far more interested in using Trump’s latest outrageous claims and falsehoods for ratings generated by shock value rather than acting with the responsibility of the fourth estate in a democracy, which is in part, to be a check on government power. This responsibility of the fourth estate is reflected in the actions of authoritarian leaders demonizing even murdering journalists to control the message. Donald Trump Twitter Feed Such a statement controverts the founders; “​Our liberty depends on the freedom of the press, and that cannot be limited without being lost​.”—Thomas Jefferson (1786) War of Words: Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the Outcome of the 2016 US Presidential Election Page 4 As a student of Communication Studies, it was more shocking to watch the reporting of the candidate’s latest outrage than the outrage itself. Yet, despite what could be quantifiably proven to be falsehoods, Trump continued to gain in popularity, eclipsing long-standing Republican leaders one by one as he rose ultimately to take the Republican nomination for President. Why did this work? What social science theories can be applied to understand why this worked? How could so many Americans demonstrate such casual disregard for long-held values such as ethics and honesty? Like every species on the planet, the human mind relies heavily on mental shortcuts called heuristics. Heuristics replace the analytical thought with automatic processing. Without heuristics, encountering a new style of chair, for instance, would force an individual to learn all over again what a chair is. Instead, heuristics allow us to apply mental schema based on prior knowledge to new experiences. This propensity simplifies mental processing, allowing us to focus on more important tasks that require close attention and leaves the rest on autopilot. Our brains are hardwired to find patterns in everything. This is so central to cognitive psychology that in 2008, science author Michael Shermer coined the name ‘patternicity’. “​...our brains tend to seek out patterns and connections among events, because of a basic evolutionary principle: “better safe than sorry.” All things being equal, it’s usually better to assume that a connection between two events exists than to assume that it doesn’t, especially when one of the events is physically dangerous.​” (​Lilienfeld, Lynn, & Namy, 2017, p. 15) Michael Peterson, in his article ‘​Evolutionary Political Psychology: On the Origin and Structure of Heuristics and Biases​’ published in ​Political Psychology​, 2015, identifies several important concepts. War of Words: Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the Outcome of the 2016 US Presidential Election Page 5 1. Peterson attributes heuristics to the biological evolutionary process, drawing on examples from the animal kingdoms. These heuristics are referred to as FAPs (Fixed Action Patterns.) Cialdini discusses mother turkeys dutifully tending to puppets of predators making the ‘Cheep-Cheep’ sounds of a baby turkey, beyond their ability to control. The mother turkey will then violently attack the puppet once the heuristic trigger is discontinued (Cialdini, 1984, p. 2) 2. Peterson cites Dunbar, 1998, who postulated that the human mind is designed for societies of approximately 150 people. Large-scale politics, therefore, are extremely new to the evolution of the human mind. In the past, political action and support were based on personal experience. We knew the people we were judging politically. We had a variety of direct sources on which to base our decisions. Mass politics lacks the intimate social experience required, creating a need for new political heuristics. Large-scale political structures are maladaptive to our evolutionary way of thinking resulting in maladaptive heuristics surrounding political decision making. This is a flaw which can be easily exploited. Though a small set of political heuristics exist as learned behavior. Peterson notes that because heuristics are employed to replace actual political knowledge, people lack adequate information to develop an extensive set of political heuristics. Party, Ideology, Endorsement, Viability, and Appearance (Lau, & Redlawsk, 2001) are identified for study in ​‘Advantages and disadvantages of cognitive heuristics in political decision making.’ ​(Lau, 2001) War of Words: Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the Outcome of the 2016 US Presidential Election Page 6 These principles of cognitive psychology in the context of political speech and decision-making provide a scaffold from which to build a deeper understanding. This is critical to the foundations of bias and how the mind forms bias outside our conscious control. Cognitive Bias “​A cognitive bias is a mistake in reasoning, evaluating, remembering, or other cognitive process, often occurring as a result of holding onto one's preferences and beliefs regardless of contrary information. Psychologists study cognitive biases as they relate to memory, reasoning, and decision-making​.” (Chegg Study, 2018) With this definition in mind, we understand that Cognitive Bias is not a single thing. Cognitive Bias is a term applied to a broad spectrum of erroneous conclusions our minds make regularly. We think we have come to our conclusions based on reason when in fact, our minds will spend the least amount of effort possible to draw our conclusions. Our minds have applied every shortcut possible based on past experience, patterns, evolutionary constraints, etc.. To extend our scaffold, we will take a deeper look into several key principles of social science which span the psychological, social, and political disciplines. Let’s begin with Status Conferral. Status Conferral “​Status Conferral is the notion that press coverage singles out and confers importance upon the person or group covered. If status conferral occurs, it has serious implications for traditional conceptions of how the press should function in a democracy.​” (​Lemert,1969) Status Conferral equates to PT Barnum's famous quote “There is no such thing as bad publicity.” (Phineas T. Barnum) ironically, Barnum is often referred to as the father of Agentry Public Relations (Guth, 2012, p. 58.) Agentry public relations is often thought of as the model of public relations employed without ethics. Grandiose, quantifiable statements are the tool in War of Words: Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the Outcome of the 2016 US Presidential Election Page 7 trade for the agentry public relations practitioner. “​The best chocolate cake ever​.” (Donald Trump) “​The largest audience ever to witness an inauguration, period, both in person and around the globe​.” (Donald Trump) Agentry public relations are employed entirely for the benefit of the practitioner employing them. If the title is any indicator, this connection is not lost on the creators of Showtime’s “The Circus: Inside the Greatest Political Show on Earth”, a series of documentaries by Bloomberg Politics about the election. The series continues into the presidency of Donald Trump. Agentry public relations are intended to and effect at, attracting Status Conferral With media outlets tripping over each other to print, broadcast and post each successive outrageous tweet, comment and fabrication comin

War of Words: Applying Communication Theory and Technology to Understand the 2016 Presidential Election