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i Acknowledgements  iv List of Tables  viii List of Figures  ix Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Figure 1 Upper Klamath Basin towns, dams and archaeological sites 3 Chapter 2: Background 7 Klamath Basin human subsistence and settlement  9 Hydrologic modification and dam removal  9 Evidence of anadromous salmonids in the Upper Klamath Basin 11 19th and 20th century informant testimony  11 Previous ethnographic studies in the upper basin  14 Archaeological data  16 Syntheses of evidence  18 Specialized Analysis of Animal Remains  19 DNA  20 Geochemistry  21 Chapter 3: Archaeological sites included in study 24 Medicine Rock Cave (35KL8)  27 Kawumkan Springs Midden (35KL9-12)  29 Collier State Park (35KL34)  32 Williamson River Bridge (35KL677)  33 Bezuksewas Village site (35KL778)  34 Chapter 4: Methods 36 Initial Documentation and Analysis  36 Specialized Analyses: mtDNA  38 Specialized analyses: Geochemistry  39 Development of Sr:Ca baseline  39 Sample Preparation  42 Radiocarbon sample selection and dating 43 Chapter 5: Results46 Morphological Analysis  46 Descriptive summary  46 Overall taxonomic representation  56 Specialized analyses  60 mtDNA  61 vii Geochemistry  65 Towards Sr:Ca validation  72 Chapter 6: Salmonids in the Upper Klamath Basin: Local Catch or Trade? 74 Expectations for salmonid trade vs. local catch  75 Evidence for Trade or Local Capture of Salmonids in Upper Klamath Assemblages  82 Chapter 7: Conclusions 88 References Cited93 Appendix A: Archaeological Salmonid Remains Catalog 104 Appendix B: Simon Fraser University mtDNA Technical Report 110 Appendix C: Radiocarbon Lab Data and Dates 126

Using Archaeological Fish Remains to Determine the Native Status of Anadromous Salmonids in the Upper Klamath Basin (Oregon, USA) Through mtDNA and Geochemical Analysis