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i Acknowledgements iii List of Figures viii List of Tables x Chapter 1 Introduction 1 The purpose and context of this research: 2 The theoretical and empirical framework of this problem: 3 The significance of this research: 5 Chapter 2 Field experience in geoscience education 7 The role of fieldwork in geoscience research 7 The role and status of field experience in geoscience education 9 The nature of field experience in geoscience education 12 Field experience in K-12 teacher education 14 Chapter 3 Virtual reality in geoscience education 17 Virtual reality defined: 17 The role of virtual reality in geoscience research: 17 Virtual reality in geoscience education 19 Chapter 4 TOTLE, the professional development context 30 Chapter 5 Developing the Virtual Field Environment 36

Designing and Using Virtual Field Environments to Enhance and Extend Field Experience in Professional Development Programs in Geology for K-12 Teachers