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Citizens’ increased access to the internet is transforming political landscapes across the globe. The implications for civil society, culture, religion, governmental legitimacy and accountability are vast. In nations where one does not typically expect “modern” or egalitarian ideals to be prevalent among highly religious and conservative populations, those with motivations to unite around socially and culturally taboo causes are no longer forced to silently acquiesce and accept the status quo. The internet has proven to be an invaluable tool for those aiming to engage in social activism, as it allows citizens in highly oppressive authoritarian regimes to covertly mobilize and coordinate online protest events (such as hashtag campaigns, proclamations via social media, signing of petitions, and even DDoS attacks) without the fear of repression. What catalyzes lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer/questioning (LGBTQ) equality movements in authoritarian regimes, specifically with respect to the Middle East and North African region? This thesis argues that gay rights movements are more likely to emerge in politically repressive, more conservative states when new political opportunities—namely access to the internet for purposes of political organization—become available. This master’s thesis identifies why LGBTQ movements emerged in Morocco and Algeria, but not in Tunisia until after it underwent democratization. These states will be analyzed in order to gauge the strength of their LGBTQ rights movements and, most importantly, to identify which variables most cogently explain their existence altogether.   !ii Dedication I dedicate this thesis to all the members of my family and extended family, namely my parents, Charles and Bernadette Figueredo, along with Jim and Carie Shields —and most of all—to Robert Shields. I am also thankful to my siblings: Lindie, Lisa, Charles Jr., and Mark (as well as their partners; Jeff, Shannon, Pauline, and Tia) for their ongoing encouragement. This thesis is also dedicated to my nieces and nephews: Miranda, Meagan, Marissa, Kaleb, Isaac, Christian, Angel, Taylor, Taryn, Kyra, Americus, Charles Jr. III, and my great nephew, Ellye. Lastly, I want to dedicate this thesis to my good friends Jessie and Chelsea. Without the support and encouragement from all of these people, the pursuance of my academic goals would have been seemingly more daunting.   !iii Acknowledgments I am very thankful and privileged to have had the opportunity to work with the faculty at Portland State University’s Mark O. Hatfield School of Government. I am particularly appreciative of Dr. Lindsay Benstead and Dr. Melodi Valdini for acting as my mentors and assisting me throughout the course of my thesis’ development. I am also grateful to Dr. Albert Spencer III primarily for being an influential figure to me during my time as an undergraduate. Furthermore I want to thank the members of my thesis committee, Dr. David Kinsella along with Dr. Benstead and Dr. Valdini again for their willingness to participate in the defense of this thesis. All of my professors have been instrumental in both my personal development and academic success throughout my tenure as a graduate student and I am very grateful to them for that.  !iv Table of Contents ! Abstract  i Dedication  ii Acknowledgments  iii List of Tables  v List of Figures  vi Glossary  vii ! Chapter 1 The Emergence of LGBTQ Movements in the MENA  1 ! Chapter 2 The Social Status of Sexual & Gender Minorities  18 ! Chapter 3 Profiling the Strength of LGBTQ Movements in Morocco, Algeria, & Tunisia  34 ! Chapter 4 Existing Theoretical Explanations  42 ! Chapter 5 Overview of Hypotheses  57 ! Chapter 6 Explaining Variation in the Strength of Movements  66 ! Chapter 7 Conclusion & Implications for Social Movement Research  94 !! References  104   !v List of Tables Table 1.1: Postmaterialist Values in the MENA Region  6 Table 1.2: Four Tiers of Online Activism in Authoritarian Regimes  16 Table 2.1: The Legality of Homosexuality in the Middle East and North Africa  19 Table 5.1: Internet Penetration in the Middle East and North Africa  61   !vi List of Figures ! Figure 3.1: Strength of LGBTQ Movements in Morocco, Algeria, & Tunisia  41! Figure 4.1: Probability for Activism  55 Figure 6.1: Polity IV Regime Trends  69 Figure 6.2: Freedom House Trends  70 Figure 6.3: Internet Penetration Rate (IPR) Growth  75 Figure 6.4: Population Density of North Africa  80 Figure 6.5: Illustration of Movement Strength Crossed by Internet Trends  83 ! !vii Glossary ! Cisgender Is an individual whose birth sex correlates with their prescribed gender. In essence it is an individual that does not identify as transgender or agender. Coming Out The process by which an individual publicly reveals a fundamental component of their identity (e.g. sexual, gender, religious, secular, feminist, etc.). Gay Community Though this has homosexual connotations, it is typically used as an umbrella term that is inclusive of the collective LGBTQ community, including transgender individuals, asexual individuals, pansexuals, intersex persons, and even straight allies. Gender Is different from sex in that sex refers to one’s physiological composition, whereas gender is typically the expression of masculine, feminine, or neither of those two characteristics. Descriptively, men usually choose to express their gender by being masculine while women express it by being more feminine. Though this may be a prevalent cultural norm, it is purely stereotypical. Many individuals deviate from these traditional gender roles, hence the need for descriptive terms such as “tom boy,” for example. Gender Identity Refers to how individuals express their gender or label themselves. Gender Minority Is an individual or group of individuals that are not cisgender; that is, their birth sex does not match their gender (see Transgender definition). Intersectionality Is when one person has multiple identities. For example, an individual may be a member of multiple communities (e.g. gay woman of color, !viii straight cisgender secular man, or Islamic feminist). The labels most individuals identify with are not mutually exclusive. LGBTQ An acronym referring to the aggregate community of sexual and gender minorities; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer/questioning individuals. Several variants are possible such as ‘LGBTI’ or ‘LGBTP’ to include intersex and pansexual individuals. MENA Is an acronym that refers to states within the Middle East and North African region. It is also commonly referred to as the “Arab world.” Non-Binary Gender Identity Is a gender identity that is not associated with the male or female sex. A non-binary gender identity may incorporate characteristics from both the male and female genders or may deviate from both entirely. It is a gender identity that is more flexible and not subject to normative preconceptions of the binary gender system. Sexual Minority Is an individual that is attracted to the same sex or gender, is not attracted to binary genders, or does not have a sexual orientation altogether. Transgender A person that identifies as a gender not correlated with their birth sex.   !1 Chapter 1 The Emergence of LGBTQ Movements in the MENA  Regimes in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) have dismal reputations internationally for authoritarianism and lack of political reform. Overt corruption, restrictions on civil liberties, and gross violations of human rights are commonplace in the region. These aspects of authoritarian governance are merely a snapshot of an exhaustive catalog of problems that hinder regional peace and stability, as societal issues such as sectarian violence, political cleavages, terrorism, and widespread religious fundamentalism also contributes to much of the turmoil that plagues these states. Despite the dismal political context, citizens in MENA countries appear remarkably happy. The World Values Survey (2010-2014, V10) illustrates that an average of 23.9% of respondents in the region claim to be “very happy” and an average of 52.9%—a majority —assert they are “rather happy” (compared to 36.1% and 53.5% in the United States, respectively). The level of happiness of a populace is a good indication that citizens do 1 not feel their political situation is hopeless. Citizens in the MENA region are becoming States and territories included in this study are Algeria, Bahrain, Cyprus, Palestine, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, 1 Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Qatar, Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen, and for comparative reasons, the United States (see World Values Survey 2010-2014, V10). !2

An Examination of Factors that Catalyze LGBTQ Movements in Middle Eastern and North African Authoritarian Regimes