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Our goal is to develop an automated digital fabrication process that can make any object out of smart materials. In this paper, we present an algorithm for creating shapes by the process of duplication, using modules we have termed smart sand. The object to be duplicated is dipped into a bag of smart sand; the particles exchange messages to sense the object’s shape; and then the particles selectively form mechanical bonds with their neighbors to form a duplicate of the original. Our algorithm is capable of duplicating convex and concave 3D objects in a completely distributed manner. It uses O(1) storage space and O(n) inter-module messages per module. We perform close to 500 experiments using a realistic simulator with over 1400 modules. These experiments confirm the functionality and messaging demands of our distributed duplication algorithm while demonstrating that the algorithm can be used to form interesting and useful shapes.

What's in the Bag: A Distributed Approach to 3D Shape Duplication with Modular Robots