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Tin (Sn 2+ ) and strontium (Sr 2+ ), two potential alternatives to lead (Pb 2+ ) in perovskite formation, were explored in transforming calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) into a leaving group in a cation exchange reaction. This is the first part of a sequential ion exchange process in transforming calcite into a Pb-free perovskite material for perovskite solar cell applications. Calcite, a polymorph of CaCO 3 , was successfully transformed into strontianite (SrCO 3 ) through a cation exchange reaction. In the Sn substitution reaction on the other hand, no SnCO 3  formation was noted. Instead, oxides of Sn were formed. The wider spaces in between Ca 2+  cations in (100) orientation account for the higher atomic Sn 2+  and Sr 2+  concentrations as compared to (001) orientation, where the cation movement is restricted. X-ray absorption and photoelectron spectroscopies were used to investigate the ion-exchange transformation of calcite towards the formation of an intermediate carbonate material. Graphic abstract

Substitution of Ca2+ in Calcite by Sn2+ and Sr2+ cations through ion exchange characterized by X-ray absorption and photoelectron spectroscopies