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When we study the effects of education on fertility, it is necessary to distinguish between setting a target for family size, and the ability to actually reach this target. In highly developed countries with low fertility, the interplay of these two independent forces can result in rather complex patterns of education-fertility associations. My main hypothesis here is that education typically empowers women (and couples) to reach their personal target for family size, regardless of what the target is. If the educated women in a given country want to have a family size that exceeds the average fertility rate in that country, the fertility rate of highly educated women may be higher than the average fertility rate. The empirical data do not yet show many examples of such cases. In highly developed countries with high levels of gender equity, such as the Nordic countries, some U-shaped patterns – in which the least educated and the most educated women have somewhat higher fertility than the women with medium levels of education – have been observed. In the future, such patterns may appear in more countries. But as I argue in this note, this pattern should not be seen as an indication that education is no longer a key determinant of fertility. The effects of education on health and survival are more straightforward than they are on fertility, because the goals in health and survival are always in one direction. Irrespective of their stage of socioeconomic development, virtually all people at any given point in time want to be in good rather than in bad health, and want to avoid the premature deaths of themselves and their family members. This is also the reason why empirical research for virtually all settings shows that compared to their less educated counterparts, better educated women have lower child mortality, and better educated men and women have higher life expectancy. There have been a number of studies on the relationship between health/mortality and education, and the findings of this research leave little doubt that the many dimensions of empowerment that result from education have real and causal effects on health and survival. (Baker et al. 2011; Lutz and Skirbekk 2014). There is clear evidence that all learning experiences,

Education empowers women to reach their personal fertility target, regardless of what the target is