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Operation of model-based sensorless control of Alternating Current machines at low and zero speeds is unreliable and can fail. To overcome the limitations of sensorless control at low speeds, several alternative techniques have been developed to estimate speed and position. These are mainly based on detecting machine saliencies by measuring the response of the current to some form of voltage injection. This paper discusses injection methods, machine saliencies, and techniques used to extract speed and position that are applicable to both induction machines and permanent magnet synchronous motors.

A Review of Saliency-based Sensorless Control Methods for Alternating Current Machines