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For decades a patriarchal system precluded women from having a legal or political identity, and the legislation and attitudes supporting a patriarchal society provided the model for slavery. By the middle of the 20th century the emphasis had shifted from the oppression of women to establishing social and economic equality in the work and family sphere, and the women’s movement that sprung up during the 1960s began to argue that women were oppressed by patriarchal structures. Theories to explain how gender and racial inequalities in management have their roots in ideologies based on gender and racial differences, and feminist theoretical concepts of patriarchy challenge these inequalities. They do this by challenging concepts of gender, race, the family and the unequal division of labour underpinned by a theory of patriarchy that has come to reveal how it operates to subordinate women and privilege men, often at women’s expense. Thus patriarchy operates to achieve and maintain the gender and racial inequalities essential for the subordination of women. Another factor that impedes female managers’ access to top-level jobs is women’s own career strategies and ambivalent attitude towards a “masculine type” career orientation characterised by competition over power. This ambivalent attitude can be attributed to the tensions felt by female managers endeavouring to maintain a balance between professional and family responsibility.

GENDER, RACE AND STRESS AMONGST WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT