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Intercultural pragmatics is usually associated with pragmatic di¤erences between di¤erent languages. This seems to be the default reading of the term. However, this reading tacitly ignores that there is no one-to-one relationship between languages and cultures.1 Speakers who share the same native language do not necessarily share the same culture. For instance, native speakers of English in Ireland and the United States use language in di¤erent ways (e.g., Schneider 1999, 2008). Neither do Americans in the US all use English in the same way (cf., e.g., Barron 2009; Wolfram and Schilling 2006: 93–101). On the other hand, cultures may be shared by speakers with di¤erent native languages. Thus, as language use in interaction is shaped by cultural values, pragmatic similarities may occur across languages, while pragmatic di¤erences may occur across varieties of the same language. Variational pragmatics is a subdiscipline of intercultural pragmatics. Other subdisciplines include contrastive pragmatics, cross-cultural pragmatics, ethnopragmatics, interlanguage pragmatics, and postcolonial pragmatics. Contrastive pragmatics is concerned with inter-lingual di¤erences, i.e., with pragmatic variation between di¤erent languages. Crosscultural pragmatics, on the other hand, compares the ways in which different languages are used in communication. It also deals with native speaker—non-native speaker interaction and with lingua franca communication (cf. Blum-Kulka et al. 1989; House-Edmondson 1986: 282).2 Ethnopragmatics is concerned with explaining speech practices in terms of a culture-internal perspective (e.g., in terms of values) rather than in terms of presumed pragmatic universals (cf. Goddard 2006). Interlanguage pragmatics focuses on the specific nature of language use conventions in learner language, e.g., in the English as a foreign language spoken by native speakers of German, and also on the acquisition of these conventions by learners (cf. Kasper 1998; Kasper and Rose 1999; Barron 2003: 26–28). The use of second (as opposed to foreign) languages in interaction is studied in postcolonial pragmatics. In other words, this

Variational pragmatics: Studying the impact of social factors on language use in interaction