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Single-doped TiO 2 /FTO and co-doped TiO 2 -VO 2 /FTO thin films were prepared by sonochemistry and spray pyrolysis deposition on FTO substrates. The co-deposition of TiO 2 -VO 2  on FTO significantly changed the morphological, structural, optical, and photocatalytical properties compared to the single-deposition. X-ray diffraction and HRTEM results showed polycrystalline film structures composed of SnO 2 -tetragonal from FTO, anatase-TiO 2 , rutile-TiO 2 , and monoclinic-VO 2  phases. The co-deposition technique increases the particle size distribution by approximately two times compared to simple deposition. The single-doped TiO 2 /FTO thin film had a 15% higher bandgap than the co-doped TiO 2 -VO 2 /FTO thin film, and the electrical resistivity calculated from the van der Pauw method was 55.3 MΩ sq −1  for the TiO 2 -VO 2 /FTO co-doped thin film, 2.7 times lower than that obtained for the TiO 2 /FTO thin film. Single-doped TiO 2 /FTO and co-doped TiO 2 -VO 2 /FTO thin films presented pseudo-first-order reactions at pH 6.5, with kinetic constants of 0.026 and 0.015 min −1 , respectively. This behavior is related to the production of inactive or less active aggregates by the addition of vanadium during the co-doping process, which led to lattice contraction, which encouraged the formation of the rutile phase rather than the anatase phase. However, the co-doped thin film can modify the metal-insulator transition compared to the single-doped TiO 2 /FTO thin film. Furthermore, co-deposition decreased the bandgap value by 16% compared to single-deposition thin film. In this sense, co-doped TiO 2 -VO 2 /FTO thin films inhibited the recombination of photogenerated carriers and the formation of reactive oxygen species involved in the photocatalytic degradation of naproxen.

Photocatalytic degradation of naproxen using single-doped TiO 2 /FTO and co-doped TiO 2 -VO 2 /FTO thin films synthesized by sonochemistry