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Blue mold caused by  Penicillium  species is a major fungal disease threatening the viticulture industry in Pakistan, responsible for deteriorating the quality of grapes during handling, transportation, and distribution. Identification-based approaches of  Penicillium  species provide a better strategy on accurate diagnosis and effective management. In this study, 13 isolates were recovered from symptomatic grape bunches at five main fruit markets of Rawalpindi district, Punjab province. Based on morphological data and multi-loci phylogenetic analysis, the isolates were identified as two distinct species viz . Penicillium expansum  (eight isolates) and  Penicillium crustosum  (five isolates). Meanwhile, the pathogenicity test of  Penicillium  isolates presented by the inoculation of grape bunches showed various degrees of severity. For improving the fruit quality and eliminating the needs of synthetic fungicides, botanicals such as thyme ( Thymus vulgaris  L.), fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare  L.), garlic ( Allium sativum  L.), ginger ( Zingiber officinale  L.), and carum ( Carum capticum  L.) essential oils (EOs) at concentrations of 0.6, 0.9, 1.2, and 1.5 mg/mL were evaluated.  In vitro  studies indicated that thyme EO showed a highly significant reduction of fungal growth. Furthermore, the experiments related to reducing the decay development and average weight loss percentage of grapes revealed similar findings. Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that thyme EO can be used as an eco-friendly botanical fungicide against  Penicillium  spp. causing blue mold disease.

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Studies of  Penicillium  species associated with blue mold disease of grapes and management through plant essential oils as non-hazardous botanical fungicides