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Problematic Internet Use (PIU) involves cognitive distortions and dysfunctional behaviors (e.g., compulsive Internet use or using the Internet to alleviate negative emotions) that lead to negative outcomes in various areas of an individual’s life. The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2 (GPIUS2) is one of the few theory-driven instruments to measure the type of PIU associated with the unique communicative context available online. The purpose of this study was to expand upon previous empirical evidence of the psychometric properties of the GPIUS) among Italian young adults. The present psychometric evaluation of the Italian version of the GPIUS2 was conducted on a sample of 748 undergraduate students (48.3% males) from 18 to 26 years old (M= 21.84 years, SD = 2.20). With regard to scale dimensionality, the four first-order factors model (i.e. preference for online social interaction, mood regulation, deficient self-regulation, and negative outcomes) was confirmed (fit indices: Satorra-Bentler scaled χ2/df = 3.03; Comparative Fit Index = 0.93; Tucker–Lewis index = 0.92; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = 0.05). Internal-consistency Cronbach’s alpha ranged from 0.72 to 0.89. Convergent validity is demonstrated with significant correlations between GPIUS2 and Internet Addiction Test score. Validity was also assessed by exploring the relationship between GPIUS2 and several indices of psychosocial well-being that were expected to be related to PIU on the basis of previous studies. The overall results confirm previous evidence that the GPIUS2 is an adequate measure of generalized PIU cognitions, behaviors, and outcomes among young adults. 14.1 Defining Problematic Internet Use The proliferation of Internet technology has led to an increase in problematic Internet use (PIU) in several cultural contexts (e.g., Canbaz, Sunter, Peksen, & Canbaz, 2009; Ghassemzadeh, Shahraray, & Moradi, 2008; Liu, Desai, Krishnan-Sarin, Cavallo, & Potenza, 2011). Even if cross-national variations in prevalence have been reported (Durkee et al., 2012), it seems possible to conclude that maladaptive internet use is widespread among adolescents. In Italy a recent study (Villella et al., 2011) assessing the prevalence of behavioral addictions in an adolescent population found that 1.2% of the participants were addicted to the Internet. More recently, a prevalence of 5.01% was reported (Poli & Agrimi, 2012). © 2016 Silvia Casale, Caterina Primi, Giulia Fioravanti This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License. Brought to you by | Università degli Studi di Firenze Authenticated Download Date | 11/3/16 12:07 PM The update model of Generalized Problematic Internet Use   203 Among the theoretical approaches to PIU, the cognitive-behavioral model (Davis, 2001) has received a great deal of attention. Compared to the Internet Addiction (IA) label, a misleading category in which to group all problems associated with excessive Internet use, the cognitive-behavioral model has the merit of accounting for what people are actually doing online. This perspective, rather than conceptualizing PIU as a behavioral addiction, conceptualizes PIU as a multidimensional syndrome that consists of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral symptoms that lead to difficulties in managing one’s offline life. Davis (2001) proposes that PIU can be further classified as specific PIU (SPIU) – the overuse of content-specific functions of the Internet (e.g. gambling, viewing sexual material) – and generalized PIU (GPIU), which occurs when an individual develops problems due to the unique communicative context of the Internet. GPIU is conceptualized as “the real Internet syndrome,” as it would likely not even exist in the absence of the Internet, which acts, in its social role, as a means of communication. In fact, the interpersonal functions that are unique to the Internet have been consistently identified by a number of scholars as being associated with problematic, pathological, or addictive Internet use (Caplan & High, 2010; McKenna & Bargh, 1999; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000, 2003). In a review of the literature, Morahan-Martin (2007) explains that “there is a growing consensus that the unique social interactions made possible by the Internet play a major role in the development of Internet abuse” (p.335), adding that “people with problematic Internet abuse are drawn to the experience of being online, and prefer virtual rather than face-to-face interpersonal communication” (p.342). By drawing a distinction between GPIU and SPIU, Davis proposes an empirically testable answer to what it actually is that people are addicted to, which was neglected by the Internet addiction perspective. 14.2 The update model of Generalized Problematic Internet Use Since the publication of Davis’ research, Caplan (2002; 2003; 2005; 2007; 2010) has integrated the research on interpersonal communication in face-to-face (FtF) settings with Davis’s model of GPIU by highlighting the role that interpersonal computer mediated communication (CMC) processes play in the relationship between Internet use and psychosocial well-being. In 2010 Caplan proposed an integrated conceptual model of GPIU that combines elements of Davis’ cognitive-behavioral theory, his own works that address a preference for online social interaction (Caplan, 2003; 2005), and the socio-cognitive model of unregulated Internet use (Kim, LaRose & Peng, 2009; LaRose, Lin, & Eastin, 2003). The updated cognitive-behavioral model of PIU includes four core components: preference for online social interaction (POSI), mood regulation, deficient self-regulation, and negative outcomes (Caplan, 2010). POSI is defined as the belief that one is safer, more efficacious, and more confident with online interpersonal interactions than with FtF interactions. According to Caplan, POSI is a cognitive symptom of GPIU that may help explain, at least in part, why Brought to you by | Università degli Studi di Firenze Authenticated Download Date | 11/3/16 12:07 PM 204   Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2 certain individuals show other cognitive or behavioral indicators of problematic use, such as going online for mood regulation and having problems regulating their use of the web. Specifically, people with high levels of social anxiety and low levels of perceived social support have been found to be at risk of developing POSI (Caplan, 2007), since the online environment might be seen as more safer and comfortable than FtF interactions. The central role of POSI as a key factor for the development of other GPIU dimensions is one of the distinctive features of the GPIU perspective in comparison to the IA approach. Another cognitive symptom of GPIU is the motivation to use the Internet to alleviate distressing feelings (mood regulation), which has an important role in the development of the behavioral symptoms of both GPIU (Kim et al., 2009; LaRose et al., 2003) and POSI. Indeed, both the POSI and the mood regulation dimensions have been found to be good predictors of the failure to adequately monitor one’s use of the web. The state in which conscious self-control of the web is diminished has been labeled as Deficient Regulation. This construct consists of a compulsive use dimension the inability to control or regulate one’s online behavior and a cognitive preoccupation dimension, which describes an obsessive thought pattern about the online world. According to Caplan, “if cognitive symptoms of GPIU are salient enough, they lead to behavioral symptoms that ultimately result in negative outcomes” (p.1090). Several studies have provided preliminary empirical support for the basic assumptions of this model. Recent studies have produced empirical evidence supporting the claim that compulsive use is a central component of PIU (e.g., Caplan, 2005; Kim et al., 2009; van den Eijnden, Meerkerk, Vermulst, Spijkerman, & Engels, 2008). POSI has been found to be predictive of this compulsive use (Caplan, 2010; Fioravanti, Dèttore, & Casale, 2012) and mood regulation was a significant cognitive predictor of negative outcomes associated with Internet use (Caplan, 2002; Gámez-Guadix, Villa-George, & Calvete, 2012). Caplan and High (2007) found that the association between compulsive Internet use and negative outcomes is more pronounced when cognitive preoccupation is present. Moreover, results from the SEM analysis provided support for the overall conceptual model in several cultural contexts. Gámez-Guadix et al. (2012) found that preference for online social interaction and the use of the Internet for mood regulation increased the probability of reporting deficient self-regulation, which, in turn, was significantly associated with negative life outcomes. 14.3 The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2 Although some attempts to measure PIU have been made, these measures have not received extensive and systematic psychometric testing (Davis, Flett, & Besser, 2002). Recently, some theory-driven instruments have been created (e.g., Demetrovics, Szeredi, & Ròzsa, 2008; Pratarelli & Browne, 2002). Among them, the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2 (GPIUS2; Caplan, 2010), a revised and updated Brought to you by | Università degli Studi di Firenze Authenticated Download Date | 11/3/16 12:07 PM The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2   205 version of the 15-item Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (Caplan, 2002), has been developed in order to formally test the updated model of generalized problematic Internet use. The GPIUS2 addresses four core components: (1) POSI (a sample item is “Online social interaction is more comfortable for me than face-to-face interaction”); (2) Mood Regulation (a sample item is “I have used the Internet to make myself feel better when I was down”); (3) Deficient Self-Regulation, which consists of a compulsive use dimension and a cognitive preoccupatio

14. Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2: update on the psychometric properties among Italian young adults