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bludgeoning, and the old-fashioned whip and lash. It was the capitalism of high-seas piracy, armed invasion to secure markets or level a competitor, and above all of slavery. Slavery is as old as civilization, and its pathological rise in the seventeenth and eightenth centuries was due to sugar cultivation (see Mintz 1985), but it became most notorious in the cotton world of the United States South. Slavery also accompanied cotton in Brazil, and in the Ottoman Empire and Egypt. (Americans often fail to realize that the United States South was not the only slave economy.) Some countries produced cotton with free labor, notably India and China, but the conditions of production still involved poverty and oppression. Many writers during the peak of slavery argued that only plantations worked by enslaved labor could economically produce cotton, forgetting the Asian examples.

Empire of Cotton: A Global History. By Sven Beckert. 2014. Vintage, New York, NY. 615 pp.