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Birds and pterosaurs have pneumatic bones, a feature likely related to their flight capabilities but whose evolution and origin is still poorly understood. Pneumatic foramina are present on the external surface of the bone and are reliable indicators of post-cranial skeletal pneumatization present in Pterosauria, Eusauropoda, and Neotheropoda. Here, we carried out a qualitative analysis of the position, size and number of pneumatic foramina of the cervical and thoracic/dorsal vertebrae of pterosaurs and birds, as they have the potential to challenge hypotheses about the emergence and evolution of the respiratory trait in these groups. We also discussed differences between pneumatic and vascular foramina for identification purposes. Besides phylogenetic representativeness, the pterosaur taxonomic sampling considered the preservation of specimens and, for birds, their life habit, as this relates to the level of pneumatization. Pneumatic foramina on the lateral faces of the centrum of the mid-cervical vertebrae of pterosaurs and birds differ in position and size, and those adjacent to the neural canal additionally differ in number. The avian posterior cervical vertebrae show a higher number of pneumatic foramina in comparison to their mid-cervicals, while the opposite is true for pterosaurs, suggesting differences in the cervical air sac of these clades. Pneumatic foramina were found at the base of the transverse processes of the notarial vertebrae of birds, while they were absent from some of the pterosaurs analyzed here, revealing the presence of a pneumatic hiatus in the vertebral column that might be explained due to the distance of this structure to the cervical air sac. These findings indicate that, although the overall skeletal pneumatization of pterosaurs and birds present deep homologies, some pneumatic features occurred convergently because variation in the number of pneumatic foramina along the vertebral column is related to the position of the air sacs in pterosaurs and birds and/or the habit of each species. There is an evident reduction of the pneumatic foramina in birds that have aquatic foraging and an increase in the ones which perform static soaring. Although we did not find any external anatomical difference between pneumatic and vascular foramina, we observed that vascular foramina occur at specific sites and thus identification on the basis of location is reliable.

Comparative analysis of the vertebral pneumatization in pterosaurs (Reptilia: Pterosauria) and extant birds (Avialae: Neornithes)