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From an environmental perspective optimised dairy systems, which follow current regulations, still have low nitrogen (N) use efficiency, high N surplus (kg N ha -1 ) and enable  ad-hoc  delivery of direct and indirect reactive N losses to water and the atmosphere. The objective of the present study was to divide an intensive dairy farm into N attenuation capacity areas based on this  ad-hoc  delivery. Historical and current spatial and temporal multi-level datasets (stable isotope and dissolved gas) were combined and interpreted. Results showed that the farm had four distinct attenuation areas:  high N attenuation : characterised by ammonium-N (NH 4  + -N) below 0.23 mg NH 4  + -N l -1  and nitrate (NO 3  - -N) below 5.65 mg NO 3  - -N l -1  in surface, drainage and groundwater, located on imperfectly to moderately-well drained soils with high denitrification potential and low nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions (av. 0.0032 mg N 2 O-N l -1 );  moderate N attenuation : characterised by low NO 3  - -N concentration in drainage water but high N 2 O production (0.0317 mg N 2 O-N l -1 ) and denitrification potential lower than group 1 (av. δ 15 N-NO 3  - : 16.4‰, av. δ 18 O-NO 3  - : 9.2‰), on well to moderately drained soils;  low N attenuation—area 1 : characterised by high NO 3  - -N (av. 6.90 mg NO 3  - -N l -1 ) in drainage water from well to moderately-well drained soils, with low denitrification potential (av. δ 15 N-NO 3  - : 9.5‰, av. δ 18 O-NO 3  - : 5.9‰) and high N 2 O emissions (0.0319 mg N 2 O l -1 ); and  low N attenuation—area 2 : characterised by high NH 4  + -N (av. 3.93 mg NH 4  + -N l -1  and high N 2 O emissions (av. 0.0521 mg N 2 O l -1 ) from well to imperfectly drained soil. N loads on site should be moved away from low attenuation areas and emissions to air and water should be assessed.

An integrated assessment of nitrogen source, transformation and fate within an intensive dairy system to inform management change