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The bionematicidal effect of a synthetic volatile mixture (SVM) of four volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by the endophytic fungus  Daldinia cf .  concentrica  against the devastating plant-parasitic root-knot nematode  Meloidogyne javanica  has been recently demonstrated in both  in vitro  and greenhouse experiments. However, the mode of action governing the observed irreversible paralysis of J2 larvae upon exposure to SVM is unknown. To unravel the mechanism underlying the anthelmintic and nematicidal activities, we used the tractable model worm  Caenorhabditis elegans .  C .  elegans  was also susceptible to both the fungal VOCs and SVM. Among compounds comprising SVM, 3-methyl-1-butanol, (±)-2-methyl-1-butanol, and 4-heptanone showed significant nematicidal activity toward L1, L4 and young adult stages. Egg hatching was only negatively affected by 4-heptanone. To determine the mechanism underlying this activity, we examined the response of  C .  elegans  mutants for glutamate-gated chloride channel and acetylcholine transporter, targets of the nematicidal drugs ivermectin and aldicarb, respectively, to 4-heptanone and SVM. These aldicarb- and ivermectin-resistant mutants retained susceptibility upon exposure to 4-heptanone and SVM. Next, we used  C .  elegans  TJ356 strain  zIs356 (daf-16 :: GFP+rol-6) , LD1  ldIs7  [ skn-1B/C :: GFP + pRF4 ( rol-6 ( su1006 ))], LD1171  ldIs3 [gcs-1p :: gfp; rol-6(su1006))] , CL2166  dvIs19 (gst-4p :: GFP)  and CF1553  muIs84 (sod-3p :: GFP+rol-6) , which have mutations in genes regulating multiple stress responses. Following exposure of L4 larvae to 4-heptanone or SVM, there was clear nuclear translocation of DAF-16::GFP, and SKN-1::GFP indicating that their susceptibility involves DAF-16 and SKN1 regulation. Application of 4-heptanone, but not SVM, induced increased expression of,  gcs-1 ::GFP and  gst-4 ::GFP compared to controls. In contrast, application of 4-heptanone or SVM to the  sod-3 ::GFP line elicited a significant decline in overall fluorescence intensity compared to controls, indicating SOD-3 downregulation and therefore overall reduction in cellular redox machinery. Our data indicate that the mode of action of SVM and 4-heptanone from  D .  cf .  concentrica  differs from that of currently available nematicides, potentially offering new solutions for nematode management.

plos one

Caenorhabditis elegans susceptibility to Daldinia cf. concentrica bioactive volatiles is coupled with expression activation of the stress-response transcription factor daf-16, a part of distinct nematicidal action