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Membrane vesicles (MVs) produced by Gram-negative bacteria are being explored for novel clinical applications due to their ability to deliver active molecules to distant host cells, where they can exert immunomodulatory properties. MVs released by the probiotic  Escherichia coli  Nissle 1917 (EcN) are good candidates for testing such applications. However, a drawback for such studies is the low level of MV isolation from  in vitro  culture supernatants, which may be overcome by the use of mutants in cell envelope proteins that yield a hypervesiculation phenotype. Here, we confirm that a  tolR  mutation in EcN increases MV production, as determined by protein, LPS and fluorescent lipid measurements. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of negatively stained MVs did not reveal significant differences with wild type EcN MVs. Conversely, TEM observation after high-pressure freezing followed by freeze substitution of bacterial samples, together with cryo-TEM observation of plunge-frozen hydrated isolated MVs showed considerable structural heterogeneity in the EcN  tolR  samples. In addition to common one-bilayer vesicles (OMVs) and the recently described double-bilayer vesicles (O-IMVs), other types of MVs were observed. Time-course experiments of MV uptake in Caco-2 cells using rhodamine- and DiO-labelled MVs evidenced that EcN  tolR  MVs displayed reduced internalization levels compared to the wild-type MVs. The low number of intracellular MVs was due to a lower cell binding capacity of the  tolR -derived MVs, rather than a different entry pathway or mechanism. These findings indicate that heterogeneity of MVs from  tolR  mutants may have a major impact on vesicle functionality, and point to the need for conducting a detailed structural analysis when MVs from hypervesiculating mutants are to be used for biotechnological applications.

plos one

Membrane Vesicles Released by a hypervesiculating Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 tolR Mutant Are Highly Heterogeneous and Show Reduced Capacity for Epithelial Cell Interaction and Entry