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The African penguin,  Spheniscus demersus , is listed as Endangered by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species due to the drastic reduction in population numbers over the last 20 years. To date, the only studies on immunogenetic variation in penguins have been conducted on the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes. It was shown in humans that up to half of the genetic variability in immune responses to pathogens are located in non-MHC genes. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are now increasingly being studied in a variety of taxa as a broader approach to determine functional genetic diversity. In this study, we confirm low genetic diversity in the innate immune region of African penguins similar to that observed in New Zealand robin that has undergone several severe population bottlenecks. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) diversity across TLRs varied between  ex situ  and  in situ  penguins with the number of non-synonymous alterations in  ex situ  populations (n = 14) being reduced in comparison to  in situ  populations (n = 16). Maintaining adaptive diversity is of vital importance in the assurance populations as these animals may potentially be used in the future for re-introductions. Therefore, this study provides essential data on immune gene diversity in penguins and will assist in providing an additional monitoring tool for African penguin in the wild, as well as to monitor diversity in  ex situ  populations and to ensure that diversity found in the  in situ  populations are captured in the assurance populations.

Diversity in the Toll-Like Receptor Genes of the African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus)