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Among Accipitriformes sensu stricto, only a few species have been reported to form hybrid zones; these include the red kite  Milvus milvus  and black kite  Milvus migrans migrans .  M .  milvus  is endemic to the western Palearctic and has an estimated total population of 20–24,000 breeding pairs. The species was in decline until the 1970s due to persecution and has declined again since the 1990s due to ingestion of rodenticide-treated baits, illegal poisoning and changes in agricultural practices, particularly in its core range. Whereas F1  M .  milvus  ×  M .  migr .  migrans  hybrid offspring have been found, F2 and F3 hybrids have only rarely been reported, with low nesting success rates of F1 hybrids and partial hybrid sterility likely playing a role. Here, we analyzed the mitochondrial ( CO1  and  CytB ) and nuclear ( Myc ) DNA loci of 184  M .  milvus , 124  M .  migr .  migrans  and 3 F1 hybrid individuals collected across central Europe. In agreement with previous studies, we found low heterozygosity in  M .  milvus  regardless of locus. We found that populations of both examined species were characterized by a high gene flow within populations, with all of the major haplotypes distributed across the entire examined area. Few haplotypes displayed statistically significant aggregation in one region over another. We did not find mitochondrial DNA of one species in individuals with the plumage of the other species, except in F1 hybrids, which agrees with Haldane´s Rule. It remains to be investigated by genomic methods whether occasional gene flow occurs through the paternal line, as the examined  Myc  gene displayed only marginal divergence between  M .  milvus  and  M .  migr .  migrans . The central European population of  M .  milvus  is clearly subject to free intraspecific gene flow, which has direct implications when considering the origin of individuals in  M .  milvus  re-introduction programs.

plos one

Conservation of the Red Kite Milvus milvus (Aves: Accipitriformes) Is Not Affected by the Establishment of a Broad Hybrid Zone with the Black Kite Milvus migrans migrans in Central Europe