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Frameshifting during translation of viral or in rare cases cellular mRNA results in the synthesis of proteins from two overlapping reading frames within the same mRNA. In HIV-1 the protease, reverse transcriptase, and integrase enzymes are in a second reading frame relative to the structural group-specific antigen (gag), and their synthesis is dependent upon frameshifting. This ensures that a strictly regulated ratio of structural proteins and enzymes, which is critical for HIV-1 replication and viral infectivity, is maintained during protein synthesis. The frameshift element in HIV-1 RNA is an attractive target for the development of a new class of anti HIV-1 drugs. However, a number of examples are now emerging of human genes using −1 frameshifting, such as  PEG10  and  CCR5 . In this study we have compared the HIV-1 and  PEG10  frameshift elements and shown they have distinct functional characteristics. Frameshifting occurs at several points within each element. Moreover, frameshift modulators that were isolated by high-throughput screening of a library of 114,000 lead-like compounds behaved differently with the  PEG10  frameshift element. The most effective compounds affecting the HIV-1 element enhanced frameshifting by 2.5-fold at 10 μM in two different frameshift reporter assay systems. HIV-1 protease:gag protein ratio was affected by a similar amount in a specific assay of virally-infected cultured cell, but the modulation of frameshifting of the first-iteration compounds was not sufficient to show significant effects on viral infectivity. Importantly, two compounds did not affect frameshifting with the human  PEG10  element, while one modestly inhibited rather than enhanced frameshifting at the human element. These studies indicate that frameshift elements have unique characteristics that may allow targeting of HIV-1 and of other viruses specifically for development of antiviral therapeutic molecules without effect on human genes like  PEG10  that use the same generic mechanism.

HIV-1 and Human PEG10 Frameshift Elements Are Functionally Distinct and Distinguished by Novel Small Molecule Modulators