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Patterns of genetic variation and spatial genetic structure (SGS) were investigated in  Crossocalyx hellerianus , a strictly epixylic dioicous liverwort (Scapaniaceae  s . l ., Marchantiophyta). Studied populations were located in Fennoscandia and Central Europe, with localities differing in availability of substrate and the population connectivity, and their populations consequently different in size, density, and prevailing reproductive mode. A set of nine polymorphic microsatellites was successfully developed and used. Identical individuals were only found within populations. Especially in large populations, the majority of the individuals were genetically unique. Resampled number of genotypes, mean number of observed alleles per locus after rarefaction, and Nei’s gene diversity in large populations reached high values and ranged between 4.41–4.97, 3.13–4.45, and 0.94–0.99, respectively. On the contrary, the values in small populations were lower and ranged between 1.00–4.42, 1.00–2.73, and 0.00–0.95, respectively. As expected, large populations were found to be more genetically diverse than small populations but relatively big diversity of genotypes was also found in small populations. This indicated that even small populations are important sources of genetic variation in bryophytes and processes causing loss of genetic variation might be compensated by other sources of variability, of which somatic mutations might play an important role. The presence of SGS was discovered in all populations. Large populations possessed less SGS, with individuals showing a pronounced decrease in kinship over 50 cm of distance. Apparent SGS of small populations even at distances up to 16 meters suggests the aggregation of similar genotypes, caused predominantly by the deposition of asexually formed gemmae. Although no strong kinship was detectable at the distances over 16 meters in both small and large populations, identical genotypes were occasionally detected at longer distances (20–80 m), suggesting effective dispersal of asexual propagules.

Comparison of Genetic Structure of Epixylic Liverwort Crossocalyx hellerianus between Central European and Fennoscandian Populations