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Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato  is a serious pathogen causing root and stem rot to conifers in the northern hemisphere and rendering the timber defective for sawing and pulping. In this study we applied next-generation sequencing to i) identify transcriptional responses unique to  Heterobasidion -inoculated Norway spruce and ii) investigate the  H .  annosum  transcripts to identify putative virulence factors. To address these objectives we wounded or inoculated 30-year-old Norway spruce clones with  H .  annosum  and 454-sequenced the transcriptome of the interaction at 0, 5 and 15 days post inoculation. The 491860 high-quality reads were  de novo  assembled and the relative expression was analysed. Overall, very few  H .  annosum  transcripts were represented in our dataset. Three  delta-12 fatty acid desaturase  transcripts and one  Clavaminate synthase-like  transcript, both associated with virulence in other pathosystems, were found among the significantly induced transcripts. The analysis of the Norway spruce transcriptional responses produced a handful of differentially expressed transcripts. Most of these transcripts originated from genes known to respond to  H .  annosum . However, three genes that had not previously been reported to respond to  H .  annosum  showed specific induction to inoculation: an  oxophytodienoic acid–reductase (OPR) , a  beta–glucosidase  and a  germin-like protein  ( GLP2 ) gene. Even in a small data set like ours, five novel highly expressed Norway spruce transcripts without significant alignment to any previously annotated protein in Genbank but present in the  P .  abies  (v1.0) gene catalogue were identified. Their expression pattern suggests a role in defence. Therefore a more complete survey of the transcriptional responses in the interactions between Norway spruce and its major pathogen  H .  annosum  would probably provide a better understanding of gymnosperm defence than accumulated until now.

Transcriptional Responses Associated with Virulence and Defence in the Interaction between Heterobasidion annosum s.s. and Norway Spruce