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Secondary metabolites released by invasive plants can increase their competitive ability by affecting native plants, herbivores, and pathogens at the invaded land. Whether these secondary metabolites affect the invasive plant itself, directly or indirectly through microorganisms, however, has not been well documented. Here we tested whether activated carbon (AC), a well-known absorbent for secondary metabolites, affect arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbioses and competitive ability in an invasive plant. We conducted three experiments (experiments 1–3) with the invasive forb  Solidago canadensis  and the native  Kummerowia striata.  Experiment 1 determined whether AC altered soil properties, levels of the main secondary metabolites in the soil, plant growth, and AMF communities associated with  S. canadensis  and  K. striata . Experiment 2 determined whether AC affected colonization of  S. canadensis  by five AMF, which were added to sterilized soil. Experiment 3 determined the competitive ability of  S. canadensis  in the presence and absence of AMF and AC. In experiment 1, AC greatly decreased the concentrations of the main secondary metabolites in soil, and the changes in concentrations were closely related with the changes of AMF in  S. canadensis  roots. In experiment 2, AC inhibited the AMF  Glomus versiforme  and  G. geosporum  but promoted  G. mosseae  and  G. diaphanum  in the soil and also in  S. canadensis  roots. In experiment 3, AC reduced  S. canadensis  competitive ability in the presence but not in the absence of AMF. Our results provided indirect evidence that the secondary metabolites (which can be absorbed by AC) of the invasive plant  S. canadensis  may promote  S. canadensis  competitiveness by enhancing its own AMF symbionts.

plos one

An Invasive Plant Promotes Its Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbioses and Competitiveness through Its Secondary Metabolites: Indirect Evidence from Activated Carbon