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Traditionally  Cocholodinium  and  Gymnodinium  sensu lato clade are distinguished based on the cingulum turn number, which has been increasingly recognized to be inadequate for Gymnodiniales genus classification. This has been improved by the combination of the apical groove characteristics and molecular phylogeny, which has led to the erection of several new genera ( Takayama, Akashiwo ,  Karenia , and  Karlodinium ). Taking the apical groove characteristics and molecular phylogeny combined approach, we reexamined the historically taxonomically uncertain species  Cochlodinium geminatum  that formed massive blooms in Pearl River Estuary, China, in recent years. Samples were collected from a bloom in 2011 for morphological, characteristic pigment, and molecular analyses. We found that the cingulum in this species wraps around the cell body about 1.2 turns on average but can appear under the light microscopy to be >1.5 turns after the cells have been preserved. The shape of its apical groove, however, was stably an open-ended anticlockwise loop of kidney bean shape, similar to that of  Polykrikos . Furthermore, the molecular phylogenetic analysis using 18S rRNA-ITS-28S rRNA gene cistron we obtained in this study also consistently placed this species closest to  Polykrikos  within the  Gymnodinium  sensu stricto clade and set it far separated from the clade of  Cochlodinium . These results suggest that this species should be transferred to  Polykrikos  as  Polykrikos geminatum . Our results reiterate the need to use the combination of apical groove morphology and molecular phylogeny for the classification of species within the genus of  Cochlodinium  and other Gymnodiniales lineages.

Apical Groove Type and Molecular Phylogeny Suggests Reclassification of Cochlodinium geminatum as Polykrikos geminatum