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Background  Recent outbreaks of dengue and other  Aedes aegypti -borne arboviruses highlight the importance of a rapid response for effective vector control. Data on insecticide resistance and underlying mechanisms are essential for outbreak preparedness, but are sparse in much of Africa. We investigated the levels and heterogeneity of insecticide resistance and mechanisms of  Ae .  aegypti  from contrasting settings within and around Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.    Methodology/Principal findings  Bioassays were performed on larvae and adults to diagnose prevalence of resistance, and to assess levels where resistance was detected. Investigation of resistance mechanisms was performed using synergist bioassays, knockdown resistance ( kdr ) target site mutation genotyping and quantitative PCR expression analysis of candidate P450 genes.  Larval dose-response assays indicated susceptibility to the organophosphates tested. Adult females were also susceptible to organophosphates, but resistance to carbamates was suspected in urban and semi-urban localities. Females from all localities showed resistance to pyrethroids but resistance prevalence and level were higher in urban and especially in semi-urban areas, compared to the rural population. Environment was also associated with susceptibility: adults reared from larvae collected in tires from the semi-urban site were significantly less resistant to pyrethroids than those collected from large outdoor drinking water containers (‘drums’). Susceptibility to both pyrethroids tested was largely restored by pre-exposure to Piperonyl Butoxide (PBO), suggesting a strong metabolic basis to resistance.  The 1534C  kdr  mutation was nearly fixed in semi-urban and urban areas but was far less common in the rural area, where the 1016I  kdr  mutation frequency was also significantly lower. P450 gene analysis detected limited over-expression of single candidates but significantly elevated average expression in the semi-urban site compared to both a susceptible laboratory colony, and females from the other collection sites.    Conclusions/Significance  Our results reveal pyrethroid resistance and paired  kdr  mutations in both urban and semi-urban sites at levels that are unprecedented for mainland Africa. The combination of target site and metabolic mechanisms is common in  Ae .  aegypti  populations from other continents but is a worrying finding for African populations. However, organophosphate insecticides are still active against both larvae and adults of  Ae .  aegypti , providing useful insecticidal options for control and resistance management.

Insecticide resistance levels and mechanisms in Aedes aegypti populations in and around Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso