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Global distribution patterns of  Cladophialophora carrionii , agent of human chromoblastomycosis in arid climates of Africa, Asia, Australia, Central-and South-America, were compared with similar data of the vicarious  Fonsecaea  spp., agents of the disease in tropical rain forests. Population diversities among 73  C .  carrionii  strains and 60 strains of three  Fonsecaea  species were analyzed for rDNA ITS, partial β-tubulin, and amplified fragment-length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprints. Populations differed significantly between continents. Lowest haplotype diversity was found in South American populations, while African strains were the most diverse. Gene flow was noted between the African population and all other continents. The general pattern of  Fonsecaea  agents of chromoblastomycosis differed significantly from that of  C .  carrionii  and revealed deeper divergence among three differentiated species with smaller numbers of haplotypes, indicating a longer evolutionary history.

Global Spread of Human Chromoblastomycosis Is Driven by Recombinant Cladophialophora carrionii and Predominantly Clonal Fonsecaea Species