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Argues that “the social crisis produced by urbanization shaped Whitman’s poetry and pragmatist thought in similar ways,” and examines Whitman’s struggles with skepticism and relativism in light of his straddling of rural and urban experience, finding that Whitman’s ”untamed flow of sympathy” in his urban poems of 1855 and 1856 gives way to an increasing ”urbane doubt” and ”withdrawal from the city” in his 1860 ”Calamus” poems. LOVE OF COMRADES: THE URBANIZATION OF COMMUNITY IN WALT WHITMAN'S POETRY AND PRAGMATIST PHILOSOPHY FRANCES DICKEY AND M. JIMMIE KILLINGSWORTH AT THE INTERSECTION of pragmatism and urbanization in American culture stands Walt Whitman. Long recognized as "America's first urban poet,"l Whitman also has an important relation to pragmatist thought. From William James, who quotes at length from "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry" in "On a Certain Blindness in Human Beings," to Richard Rorty, who likens Dewey's liberalism to Whitman's in Achieving Our Country, philosophers and critics have worked to articulate what that relation is. Rather than following the recent trend of viewing Whitman as a pragmatist avant la lettre, we argue that the social crisis produced by urbanization shaped Whitman's poetry and pragmatist thought in similar ways. As the participial title of "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry" suggests, Whitman was really an urbanizing, rather than urban, poet. His experience of the city in his middle life, the experience that prompted his best poems, was mediated by his earlier experience in the country. Like many men of his generation, he moved from village to city. His poems bear the signs of a mind adjusting to a new sense of identity and community. The first two editions of Leaves of Grass (1855 and 1856) begin with a tone of great hope and eager celebration that grows conflicted in subsequent editions, notably 1860 and 1867, in which we find the poet arriving at a new understanding of communal relationships in modem urban environments. In working through this process, Whitman experienced a skepticism to which the pragmatists would also respond. Focusing on poems that arose during the crisis period in the late 1850s, we argue that the older poet-straddling the generation of the elder Henry James and that of his son William-captures poetically the kinds of conflicts within an urbanizing culture that also influenced the formation of pragmatist theories of community: Peirce's community of inquiry, Royce's Christian community, and Dewey's democracy. Skepticism and Community The long history of urbanization in Europe and America is also the history, in philosophy, of the articulation of skepticism about whether

Love of Comrades: The Urbanization of Community in Walt Whitman's Poetry and Pragmatist Philosophy