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The use of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models has been proposed as a means of estimating the dose of the reactive metabolites of carcinogenic xenobiotics reaching target tissues, thereby affording an opportunity to base estimates of potential cancer risk on tissue dose rather than external levels of exposure. In this article, we demonstrate how a PBPK model can be constructed by specifying mass-balance equations for each physiological compartment included in the model. In general, this leads to a system of nonlinear partial differential equations with which to characterize the compartment system. These equations then can be solved numerically to determine the concentration of metabolites in each compartment as functions of time. In the special case of a linear pharmacokinetic system, we present simple closed-form expressions for the area under the concentration-time curves (AUC) in individual tissue compartments. A general relationship between the AUC in blood and other tissue compartments is also established. These results are of use in identifying those parameters in the models that characterize the integrated tissue dose, and which should therefore be the primary focus of sensitivity analyses. Applications of PBPK modeling for purposes of tissue dosimetry are reviewed, including models developed for methylene chloride, ethylene oxide, 1,4-dioxane, 1-nitropyrene, as well as polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins, and furans. Special considerations in PBPK modeling related to aging, topical absorption, pregnancy, and mixed exposures are discussed. The linkage between pharmacokinetic models used for tissue dosimetry and pharmacodynamic models for neoplastic transformation of stem cells in the target tissue is explored.

Applications of physiologic pharmacokinetic modeling in carcinogenic risk assessment.