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Two figures are cast as the heroes of the paper. The first, Jean-Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Breau ranks among a great number of nineteenth-century anthropologists who, although they broke no new ground in their discipline, played an important role in institutionalizing it. The second, Franciszek Henryk Duchinski, was an ethnographer-amateur, brought up in the Polish-Ukrainian milieu. Beginning in the 1840s, he was active in the circle of Polish exiles. Serious doubts have been raised as to whether he belongs in the history of science. Both Quatrefages and Duchinski were the authors of racial theories that have long been regarded as eccentric. However, if the French author is usually accorded a prominent place in works on the ideology of racism and the history of science, then the Polish-Ukrainian scholar has never been given that kind of recognition. J.-L. A. de Quatrefages de Breau (1810–92) was a French anthropologist and zoologist. Co-founder, along with Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Paul Broca, of the Paris Anthropological Society, he was unstinting in his efforts to popularize science, sitting on a number of French and foreign scholarly associations. He studied in Strasbourg where he was later employed as a lecturer teaching chemistry, physics and — after

‘Five Great Armies Against Our Enemies’. A Comparative Study in the History of Racism