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It has been suggested that early human vocal communication should result from at least two critical abilities: the ability to engage in cooperative efforts (Levinson, 2005), and the ability to combine sounds in larger structures (Collier et al., 2014). These characteristics are essential features of choral songs, and, in fact, Darwin speculated that language might have originated from singing. The rhythms and pitch contours that distinguish songs in other species may be investigated to understand the roots of our language. Many authors have indicated birds and singing primates as the natural target of these studies (Geissmann, 2000). The evolution of songs in nonhuman primates has been associated with a monogamous mating system and to the active defense of a territory. We have investigated the layers of complexity of the songs emitted by three nonhuman primate species: the siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus), the white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar), and the indri (Indri indri). Although the single species have received attention from scientists, a comparative approach investigating frequency variation and individual temporal patterns has never been used. For each of these species, we analyzed songs from different social groups and hierarchically classified the units emitted in the songs in phrases using dynamic time warping and cluster analysis. For each unit, we extracted a pitch 134

Primate songs and their relevance in the study of language evolution