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Language socialization is known to differ between different human societies (e. g. Ochs & Schieffelin, 1984). “Western” societies foster cognitive skills (e.g., language), but in many sub-Sahara African, rural societies (communal) action autonomy is considered more important (Keller, 2011). Different parental beliefs appear related to the speech acts addressed to children: Western, middle class caregivers tend to use more declaratives and questions when addressing their infants, whereas in many non-Western, rural communities caregivers tend to use relatively more imperatives (Rabain Jamin & Sabeau-Jouannet, 1997; Vogt, Mastin, & Schots, 2015). Early language socialization has rarely been studied among hunter-gatherer communities. From an evolutionary point of view, studying the language socialization of hunter-gatherers could provide crucial insights into interactional settings that may have been similar for our ancestors (Marlowe, 2010). The egalitarian culture of hunter-gatherer societies (Marlowe, 2010) may influence the type of speech acts caregivers address to infants in unexpected ways. For example, it has been reported that hunter-gatherer infants receive few direct instructions, which could affect the amount of imperatives addressed to infants (Hewlett & Roulette, 2016). The Hadza are traditionally hunter-gatherers in northern Tanzania. Recent changes in livelihood can be observed in present day Hadza camps. For example more tourists visit some of the camps bringing money to pay for tour guides and souvenirs. These changes impact the Hadzas’ lifestyle, and consequently may also influence the language socialization of their infants. The following research questions are addressed in this study: (1) Are traditional child rearing ideals (i.e., little explicit instruction) reflected in caregivers’ speech acts? (2) Do speech acts differ with camp livelihood? 8

Speech acts addressed at Hadza infants in Tanzania