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During diving, marine mammals must balance the conservation of limited oxygen reserves with the metabolic costs of swimming exercise. As a result, energetically efficient modes of locomotion provide an advantage during periods of submergence and will presumably increase in importance as the animals perform progressively longer dives. To determine the effect of a limited oxygen supply on locomotor performance, we compared the kinematics and behavior of swimming and diving bottlenose dolphins. Adult bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) were trained to swim horizontally near the water surface or submerged at 5 m and to dive to depths ranging from 12 to 112 m. Swimming kinematics (preferred swimming mode, stroke frequency and duration of glides) were monitored using submersible video cameras (Sony Hi-8) held by SCUBA divers or attached to a pack on the dorsal fin of the animal. Drag and buoyant forces were calculated from patterns of deceleration for horizontally swimming and vertically diving animals. The results showed that dolphins used a variety of swimming gaits that correlated with acceleration. The percentage of time spent gliding during the descent phase of dives increased with depth. Glide distances ranged from 7.1+/-1.9 m for 16 m dives to 43.6+/-7.0 m (means +/- s.e.m.) for 100 m dives. These gliding patterns were attributed to changes in buoyancy associated with lung compression at depth. By incorporating prolonged glide periods, the bottlenose dolphin realized a theoretical 10-21 % energetic savings in the cost of a 100 m dive in comparison with dives based on neutral buoyancy models. Thus, modifying locomotor patterns to account for physical changes with depth appears to be one mechanism that enables diving mammals with limited oxygen stores to extend the duration of a dive.

The diving physiology of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): II. Biomechanics and changes in buoyancy at depth