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Background  Antimicrobial resistance is one of the most urgent threat to global public health, as it can lead to high morbidity, mortality, and medical costs for humans and livestock animals. In ruminants, the rumen microbiome carries a large number of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs), which could disseminate to the environment through saliva, or through the flow of rumen microbial biomass to the hindgut and released through feces. The occurrence and distribution of ARGs in rumen microbes has been reported, revealing the effects of external stimuli (e.g., antimicrobial administrations and diet ingredients) on the antimicrobial resistance in the rumen. However, the host effect on the ruminal resistome and their interactions remain largely unknown. Here, we investigated the ruminal resistome and its relationship with host feed intake and milk protein yield using metagenomic sequencing.    Results  The ruminal resistome conferred resistance to 26 classes of antimicrobials, with genes encoding resistance to tetracycline being the most predominant. The ARG-containing contigs were assigned to bacterial taxonomy, and the majority of highly abundant bacterial genera were resistant to at least one antimicrobial, while the abundances of ARG-containing bacterial genera showed distinct variations. Although the ruminal resistome is not co-varied with host feed intake, it could be potentially linked to milk protein yield in dairy cows. Results showed that host feed intake did not affect the alpha or beta diversity of the ruminal resistome or the abundances of ARGs, while the Shannon index ( R   2   = 0.63,  P  < 0.01) and richness ( R   2   = 0.67,  P  < 0.01) of the ruminal resistome were highly correlated with milk protein yield. A total of 128 significantly different ARGs (FDR < 0.05) were identified in the high- and low-milk protein yield dairy cows. We found four ruminal resistotypes that are driven by specific ARGs and associated with milk protein yield. Particularly, cows with low milk protein yield are classified into the same ruminal resistotype and featured by high-abundance ARGs, including  mfd  and  sav 1866.    Conclusions  The current study uncovered the prevalence of ARGs in the rumen of a cohort of lactating dairy cows. The ruminal resistome is not co-varied with host feed intake, while it could be potentially linked to milk protein yield in dairy cows. Our results provide fundamental knowledge on the prevalence, mechanisms and impact factors of antimicrobial resistance in dairy cattle and are important for both the dairy industry and other food animal antimicrobial resistance control strategies.    Supplementary Information  The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42523-021-00081-9.

Ruminal resistome of dairy cattle is individualized and the resistotypes are associated with milking traits