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Background  International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards inspectors are faced with the difficult task of learning the layout of complex nuclear facilities while being escorted through the facilities. This study addresses a gap in the literature regarding how to best support the development of inspectors’ spatial knowledge, given the constraint that they cannot bring digital devices into most nuclear facilities. We tested whether viewing a map before learning a guided route or carrying a map along the route enabled better spatial learning than having no exposure to a map. Moreover, we tested the impact of carrying maps with different levels of detail (simple 2D, simple 3D, or complex 2D maps) on spatial learning outcomes, as well as interactions between map type and individual differences in sense of direction.    Results  The results showed nearly opposite patterns of performance for participants with good and poor sense of direction scores. Participants with a good sense of direction showed higher levels of spatial knowledge when studying or carrying simple maps, whether 2D or 3D, but they did not benefit from using a complex map. Participants with a poor sense of direction showed lower levels of spatial knowledge when using a simple map relative to using no map or a complex map, suggesting that they did not attempt to use the complex map. For both groups of participants, referring to a simple map while learning a route decreased their awareness of their environment, as measured by response times on a memory test that included incidentally learned items.

Where are we going and where have we been? Examining the effects of maps on spatial learning in an indoor guided navigation task